两张图片都出自以上出处。 - 图1

    两张图片都出自以上出处。 - 图2

    两张图片都出自以上出处。

    55.出处同上。

    56.C.1.Seitz et al.,"Hot-Clock nMOS,"Proceedings of the 1985 Chapel Hill Conference on VLSI(Rockville,Md.:Computer Science Press,1985),pp.1-17,http://caltechcstr.library.caltech.edu/archive/00000365;Ralph C.Merkle,"Reversible Electronic Logic Using Switches,"Nanotechnology 4(1993):21-40;S.G.Younis and T.F.Knight,"Practical Implementation of Charge Recovering Asymptotic Zero Power CMOS,"Proceedings of the 1993 Symposium on Integrated Systems(Cambridge,Mass.:MIT Press,1993),pp.234-50.

    57.Hiawatha Bray,"Your Next Battery,"Boston Globe,November 24,2003,http://www.boston.com/business/technology/articles/2003/11/24/your_next_battery.

    58.1962年,Hans J.Bremermann进行了计算极限的早期工作:Hans J.Bremermann,"Optimization Through Evolution and Recombination,"in M.C.Yovits,C.T.Jacobi,c.D.Goldstein等,Self-Organizing Systems(Washington,nc.Spartan Books,1962),第93页到106页.1984年,Robert A.Freitas Jr.以Bremermann的工作为基础编写了"Xenopsychology,"Analog 104(April 1984):41-53,http://www.rfreitas.com/Astro/Xenopsychology.htm#SentienceQuotient。

    59.π×最大能量(1017kg×meter2×second2)/(6.6×10-34)焦耳/秒≈5×1050操作/秒。

    60.5×1050cps相当于5×1021(50万亿亿)人类的文明(每人需要1029cps)。

    61.100亿(1010)人类,每个人为1016cps,人类文明总共为1026cps,因此5×1050cps相当于5×1024(5亿亿亿)的人类文明。

    62.这个估计是保守估计,在过去1万年间,已经有100亿人类,但是显然并未如此。人类的实际数量已经在逐步地增长,在2000年达到61亿。一年有3×107秒,1万年就有3×1011秒。所以,使用1026cps作为人类文明的估计值,人类的思想在过年1万年间仅仅等价于3×1037的计算量。最终的笔记本电脑每秒执行5×1050的计算量,所以模拟100亿人1万年间的思想将会需要10-13秒,即万分之一纳秒。

    63.Anders Sandberg,"The Physics of the Information Processing Superobjects:Daily Life Among the Jupiter Brains,"Journal of Evolution&Technology 5(December 22,1999),http://www.transhumanist.com/volume5/Brains2.pdf.

    64.可见注释62;1042cps是1050cps的108分之一,所以1万分之一纳秒相当于现在10毫秒。

    65.可见http://edrexler.com/p/04/04/0330drexPubs.html,这上面有Drexler的出版物和专利列表。

    66.在1012美元和每千美元1026cps的速率下,我们将在21世纪40年代中期达到1035cps。如果按每个人的计算能力为1026cps算,这将需要109个人(100亿)。

    67.1984年,Robert A.Freitas提出了基于计算能力系统的“感商”(SQ)对数刻度。度量的范围从-70到50,人类大脑结果是13,CrayⅠ号超级计算机是9。Freitas的感商是基于单位质量的计算量的。一个算法简单的非常快的计算机将有一个很高的SQ。我在本章描述的计算测量是基于Freitas的SQ概念,而且尝试顾及计算的有效性,所以,如果一个简单的计算机等价于实际上正在运行的计算机,那么我们将以这个等价的(简单)计算机的计算效率为基准。在我的测量标准里,计算需要具备“有效性”。Robert A.Freitas Jr.,"Xenopsychology,"Analog 104(1984年4月):41-53,网址为http://www.rfreitas.comfAstro/Xeno psychology.htm#SentienceQuotient。

    68.作为一个有趣的花边,在小石头上雕刻,这事实上就是计算存储的最早形式。大约在公元前3000年发展起来的楔形文字是一种最早形式的书面语,使用图形标记在石头上存储信息。农业记录像在石头上存储图形标记一样存储在文件盘上,并以行列形式进行组织。这些标记的石头实际上是第一份电子表格,这样一份象形石头记录是历史记录计算机的有价值的人工制品。

    69.1000(103)bit是石头中一个原子储存信息理论能力(大约1027bit)的1024分之一。70.1cps(100cps)是石头中一个原子储存信息理论上计算能力(大约1042cps)的1042分之一。

    71.Edgar Buckingham,"Jet Propulsion for Airplanes,"NACA report no.159,in Ninth Annual Report of NACA-1923(Washington,D.C.:NACA,1924),pp.75-90.See http://naca.larc.nasa.gov/reports/1924/naca-report-159/.

    72.Belle Dume,"Microscopy Moves to the Picoscale,”PhysicsWeb,June 10,2004,http://physicsweb.org/artide/news/8/6/6,referring to Stefan Hembacher,Franz J.Giessibl,and Iochen-Mannhart,"Force Microscopy with Light-Atom Probes,"Science 305.5682(July 16,2004):380-83.这种新的“高次谐波”原子力显微镜是由奥格斯堡大学的物理学家发明的,他们使用单碳原子作为探头,而且至少比传统的扫描式隧道显微镜的分辨率高3倍。工作原理:作为探头的钨针尖以纳米级的振幅进行震荡,顶部的原子核和碳原子之间的相互作用在潜在的正弦波动曲线上产生了更高的谐波分量。科学家测算了这些信号以获取超顶部原子超高分辨率的图像,从而展示关键特征只有77皮米(千分之一纳米)。

    73.Henry Fountain,"New Detector May Test Heisenbergs Uncertainty Principle,"New York Times,July 22,2003.

    74.Mitch Jacoby,"Electron Moves in Attoseconds,"Chemical and Engineering News 82.25(June 21,2004):5,referring to Peter Abbamonte et al.,"Imaging Density Disturbances in Water with a 41.3-Attosecond Time Resolution,"Physical Review Letters 92.23(June 11,2004):237-401.

    75.S.K.Lamoreaux and 1.R.Torgerson,"Neutron Moderation in the Oklo Natural Reactor and the Time Variation of Alpha,"Physical Review D 69(2004):121701-6,http://scitation.aip.org/getabs/servlet/GetabsServlet?prog=normal&id=PRVDAQ000069000012121701000001&idtype=cvips&gifs=yes;Eugenie S.Reich,"Speed of Light May Have Changed Recently,"New Scientist,June 30,2004,http://www.newscientist.com!news/news.jsp?id=ns99996092.

    76.Charles Choi,"Computer Program to Send Data Back in Time,"UPI,October 1,2002,http://www.upi.com/view.efm?StoryID=20021001-125805-3380r;Todd Brun,"Computers with Closed Timelike Curves Can Solve Hard Problems,"Foundation of Physics Letters 16(2003):245-53.Electronic edition,September 11,2002,http://arxiv.org/PS_cache/grqc/pdf/0209/0209061.pdf.

    第4章 达到人类智能的软件:如何实现大脑的逆向工程

    1.Lloyd Watts,"Visualizing Complexity in the Brain,"in D.Fogel and C.Robinson,eds.,Computational Intelligence:The Experts Speak(Piscataway,N.J.:IEEE Press/Wiley,2003),http://www.lloydwatts.com/wcci.pdf.

    2.J.G.Taylor,B.Horwitz,and K.J.Friston,"The Global Brain:Imaging and Modeling,"Neural Networks 13,special issue(2000):827.

    3.Neil A.Busis,"Neurosciences on the Internet,"http://www.neuroguide.com;"Neurosci-entists Have Better Tools on the Brain,"Bio IT Bulletin,http://www.bioit.world.com/news/041503_report2345.html;"Brain Projects to Reap Dividends for Neurotech Firms,"Neurotech Reports,http://www.neurotechreports.com/pages/brainprojects.html.

    4.Robert A.Freitas Jr.,Nanomedicine,vol.1,Basic Capabilities,section 4.8.6,"Noninvasive Neuroelectric Monitoring"(GEORGEtown,Tex.:Landes Bioscience,1999),pp.115-16,http://www.nanomedicine.com/NMI/4.8.6.htm.

    5.第3章分析了这一案例:可见“人脑计算能力”。

    6.Kurzweil应用智能公司进行了语音识别的研究和发展,该公司是我在1982年成立的,现在是ScanSoft(前Kurzweil计算机产品公司)的子公司。

    7.Lloyd Watts,美国专利申请,美国专利局,20030095667,2003年3月22日,"Computation of Multisensor Time Delays"摘要:“文章描述了如何确定第一个感应器接收到的第一信号和第二个感受器接收到的第二信号之间的时间延迟,经分析,第一信号源自多个频率不同的第一信号通道,而第二信号源自多个频率不同的第二信号通道。第一特征是在第一信号通道里第一时间被检测到的,而第二特征是在第二信号通道里第一时间被检测到的。第一特征对应第二特征,第一时间则对应第二时间,以此来确定时间延迟。”也可见Nabil H.Farhat,美国专科申请20040073415,美国专利局,2004年4月15日,"Dynamical Brain Model for Use in Data Processing Applications。"

    8.我估计压缩的基因组可能有3000万到1亿字节(可见第2章的注释57);这比微软文字处理软件的目标代码还要少,比源代码则更少。可见Word 2003系统要求,2003年10月20日,http://www.microsoft.com/office/word/prodinfo/sysreq.mspx。

    9.Wikipedia,http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epigenetics.

    10.可见第2章注释57对基因信息量的分析,我估计大约有3000万到1亿字节,因此少于109bit,可见第3章“人类存储能力”这一节对人脑信息的分析,估计应该是1018bit。

    11.Marie Gustafsson and Christian Balkenius,"Using Semantic Web Techniques for Validation of Cognitive Models against Neuroscientific Data,"AILS04 Workshop,SAIS/SSLS Workshop(Swedish Artificial Intelligence Society;Swedish Society for Learning Systems),April 15-16,2004,Lund,Sweden,www.lucs.lu.se/People/Christian.Balkenius/PDF/Gustafsson.Balkenius.2004.pdf.

    12.可见第3章的讨论。在一个很有用的文献中,它用神经元模拟神经元,Tomaso Poggio和Christof Koch描述神经元与拥有数以千计逻辑门的芯片一样小。可见T.Poggio和C.Koch,"Synapses That Compute Motion,"Scientific American 256(1987):46-52。也可见C.Koch和T.Poggio,"Biophysics of Computational Systems:Neurons,Synapses,and Membranes,"in Synaptic Function,G.M.Edelman、W.E.Gall和W.M.Cowan等(New York:John Wiley and Sons,1987)。

    13.关于Mead,可见http://www.technology.gov/Medal/2002/bios/Carver_A._Mead.pdf。Carver Mead,Analog VLSI and Neural Systems(Reading,Mass.:Addison-Wesley,1986)。

    14.可见第5章的注释172对自组织神经网络的算法描述,以及第5章注释175对于基因算法自组织的描述。

    15.可见Gary Dudley等,"Autonomic Self-Healing Systems in a Cross-Product IT Environment,"Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Autonomic Computing,New York City,May 17-19,2004,http://csdl.computer.org/comp/proceedings/icac/2004/2114/00121140312.pdf;"About IBM Autonomic Computing,"http://www-3.ibm.com/autonomic/about.shtml;以及Ric Telford,"The Autonomic Computing Architecture,"2004年4月14日http://www.dcs.st-an-drews.ac.uk/undergrad/current/dates/disclec/2003-2/RicTelfordDistinguished2.pdf.

    16.Christine A.Skarda and Walter J.Freeman,"Chaos and the New Science of the Brain,"Concepts in Neuroscience 1.2(1990):275-85.

    17.C.Geoffrey Woods,"Crossing the Midline,"Science 304.5676(June 4,2004):1455-56;Stephen Matthews,"Early Programming of the Hypothalamo-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis,"Trends in Endocrinology and Metabolism 13.9(November 1,2002):373-80;Justin Crowley and Lawrence Katz,"Early Development of Ocular Dominance Columns,"Science 290.5495(November 17.2000):1321-24;Anna Penn et al.,"Competition in the Retinogeniculate Patterning Driven by Spontaneous Activity,"Science 279.5359(March 27,1998):2108-12;M.V.Johnston et al.,"Sculpting the Developing Brain,"Advances in Pediatrics 48(2001):1-38;P.La Cerra and R.Bingham,"The Adaptive Nature of the Human Neurocognitive Architecture:An Alternative Model,"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 95(September 15,1998):11290-94.

    18.神经网络是神经的简化模型,它可以自组织并解决问题。可见第5章注释175对神经网络算法的描述。基因算法是进化的模型,利用有性生殖控制突变率,可见第5章注释175对基因算法的详细描述。马尔可夫模型是数学技术的产物,并且在很多方面和神经网络相似。

    19.Aristotle,The Works of Aristotle,trans.W.D.Ross(Oxford:Clarendon Press,1908-1952(see,in particular,Physics);see also http://www.encyclopedia.com/html/section/aristotl_philosophy.asp.

    20.E.D.Adrian,The Basis of Sensation:The Action of Sense Organs(London:Christophers,1928).

    21.A.L.Hodgkin and A.F.Huxley,"Action Potentials Recorded from Inside a Nerve Fibre,"Nature 144(1939):710-12.

    22.A.L.Hodgkin and A.F.Huxley,"A Quantitative Description of Membrane Current and Its Application to Conduction and Excitation in Nerve,"Journal of Physiology 117(1952):500-544.

    23.W.S.McCulloch和W.Pitts,"A Logical Calculus of the Ideas Immanent in Nervous Activity,"Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics 5(1943):115-33。这一开创性论文很难理解,如果想获得一个清晰的说明和解释,可见"Acomputer Model of the Neuron,"the Mind Project,Illinois State University,http://www.mind.ilstu.edu/curriculum/perception/mpneuron1.html。

    24.可见第5章注释172对神经网络算法的描述。

    25.E.Salinas and P.Thier,"Gain Modulation:A Major Computational Principle of the Central Nervous System,"Neuron 27(2000):15-21.

    26.K.M.OCraven and R.L.Savoy,"Voluntary Attention Can Modulate fMRI Activity in Human MT/MST,"Investigational Ophthalmological Vision Science 36(1995):S856(supp.).

    27.Marvin Minsky and Seymour Papert,Perceptrons(Cambridge,Mass.:MIT Press,1969).28.Frank Rosenblatt,Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory,The Perceptron:A Probabilistic Model for Information Storage and Organization in the Brain,Psychological Review 65.6(1958):386-408;see Wikipedia,http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perceptron.

    29.O.Sporns,G.Tononi,and G.M.Edelman,"Connectivity and Complexity:The Relationship Between Neuroanatomy and Brain Dynamics,"Neural Networks 13.8-9(2000):909-22.

    30.R.H.Hahnloser et al.,"Digital Selection and Analogue Amplification Coexist in a Cortex-Inspired Silicon Circuit,"Nature 405.6789(June 22,2000):947-51;"MIT and Bell Labs Researchers Create Electronic Circuit That Mimics the Brains Circuitry,"MIT News,June 21,2000,http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/nr/2000/machinebrain.html.

    31.Manuel Trajtenberg,Economic Analysis of Product Innovation:The Case of CT Scanners(Cambridge,Mass.:Harvard University Press,1990);Michael H.Priebe,Ph.D.,president,CEO,NEUROMED GmbH;P-M.L.Robitaille,A.M.Abduljalil,and A.Kangarlu,"Ultra High Resolution Imaging of the Human Head at 8 Tesla:2K x 2K for Y2K,"Journal of Computer Assisted Tomography 24.1(January February 2000):2-8.

    32.Seong-Gi Kim,"Progress in Understanding Functional Imaging Signals,"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 100.7(April 1,2003):3550-52,http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/100/7/3550.see also Seong-Gi Kim et al.,"Localized Cerebral Blood Flow Response at Submillimeter Columnar Resolution,"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 98.19(September 11,2001):10904-9 httpi//www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/98/19/10904.

    33.K.K.Kwong et al.,"Dynamic Magnetic Resonance Imaging of Human Brain Activity During Primary Sensory Stimulation,"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 89.12(June 15,1992):5675-79.

    34.C.S.Roy and C.S.Sherrington,"On the Regulation of the Blood Supply of the Brain,"Journal of Physiology 11(1890):85-105.

    35.M.I.Posner et al.,"Localization of Cognitive Operations in the Human Brain,"Science 240.4859(June 17,1988):1627-31.

    36.F.M.Mottaghy et al.,"Facilitation of Picture Naming after Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation,"Neurology 53.8(November 10,1999):1806-12.

    37.Daithl OhAnluain,"TMS:Twilight Zone Science?"Wired News,April 18,2002,http://wired.com/news/medtech/0,1286,51699.00.html.

    38.Lawrence Osborne,"Savant for a Day,"New York Times Magazine,June 22,2003,available at.http://www.wireheading.com/brainstim/savant.html.

    39.Bruce H.McCormick,"Brain Tissue Scanner Enables Brain Microstructure Surveys,"Neuro-computing 44-46(2002):1113-18;Bruce H.McCormick,"Design of a Brain Tissue Scanner,"Neuro Computing 26-27(1999):1025-32;Bruce H.McCormick,"Development of the Brain Tissue Scanner,"Brain Networks Laboratory Technical Report,Texas A&M University Department of Computer Science,College Station,Tex.,March 18,2002,http://research.cs.tamu.edu/bnl/pubs/McC02.pdf.

    40.Leif Finkel et al.,"Mesoscale Optical Brain Imaging of Perceptual Learning,"University of Pennsylvania grant 2000-01737(2000).

    41.E.Callaway and R.Yuste,"Stimulating Neurons with Light,"Current Opinions in Neurobiology 12.5(October 2002):587-92.

    42.B.L.Sabatini and K.Svoboda,"Analysis of Calcium Channels in Single Spines Using Optical Fluctuation Analysis,"Nature 408.6812(November 30,2000):589-93.

    43.John Whitfield,"Lasers Operate Inside Single Cells,"News@nature.com,October 6,2003,http://www.nature.com/nsu/030929/030929-12.html(subscription required).Mazurs lab:http://mazurwww.harvard.edu/research/.Jason M.Samonds and A.B.Bonds,"From Another Angle:Differences in Cortical Coding Between Fine and Coarse Discrimination of Orientation,"Journal of Neurophysiology 91(2004):1193-1202.

    44.Robert A.Freitas Jr.,Nanomedicine,vol.2A,Biocompatibility,section 15.6.2,"Blood-stream Intrusiveness"(Georgetown,Tex.:Landes Bioscience,2003),pp.157-59,http://www.nanomedicine.com/NMIIA/15.6.2.htm.

    45.Robert A.Freitas Jr.,Nanomedicine,vol.1,Basic Capabilities,section 7.3,"Communication Networks"(Georgetown,Tex.:Landes Bioscience,1999),pp.186-88,http://www.nanomedicine.com/NMI/7.3.htm.

    46.Robert A.Freitas Jr.,Nanomedicine,vol.1,Basic Capabilities,section 9.4.4.3,"Inter-cellular Passage"(Georgetown,Tex.:Landes Bioscience,1999),pp.320-21,http://www.nanomedicine.com/NMI/9.4.4.3.htm#p2.

    47.Keith L.Black,M.D.,and Nagendra S.Ningaraj,"Modulation of Brain Tumor Capillaries for Enhanced Drug Delivery Selectively to Brain Tumor,"Cancer Control 11.3(May/June 2004):165-73,http://www.moffitt.usf.edu/pubs/ccj/v11n3/pdf/165.pdf.

    48.Robert A.Freitas Jr.,Nanomedicine,vol.1,Basic Capabilities,section 4.1,"Nanosensor Technology"(Georgetown,Tex.:Landes Bioscience,1999),p.93,http://www.nanomedicine.com/NMI/4.1.htm.

    49.Conference on Advanced Nanotechnology(http://www.foresight.orglConferences/AdvNan02004/index.html),NanoBioTech Congress and Exhibition(http://www.nanobiotec.de/),NanoBusiness Trends in Nanotechnology(http://www.nanoevent.com/),and NSTI Nanotechnology Conference and Trade Show(http://www.nsti.org/events.html).

    50.Peter D.Kramer,Listening to Prozac(New York:Viking,1993).

    51.LeDoux对处理危险刺激的大脑区域进行了研究,这一区域的核心部分是扁桃体,它是位于大脑底部的一个杏仁状的神经区域。扁桃体存储危险刺激的记忆,并控制对恐惧的回应。

    麻省理工学院的大脑研究人员Tomaso Poggio指出:“突触可塑性是学习的硬件基础,但值得强调的是,学习比记忆要重要得多。”可见T.Poggio和E.Bizzi,Generalization in Vision and Motor Control,“Nature 431(2004):768-74.也可见E.Benson,”The Synaptic SelfAPA Online,2002年11月,http://www.apa.org/monitor/nov02/synaptic.html。

    52.Anthony J.Bell,"Levels and Loops:The Future of Artificial Intelligence and Neuroscience,"Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B 354.1352(December 29,1999):2013-20,http://www.cnl.salk.edu/~tony/ptrsl.pdf.

    53.Peter Dayan and Larry Abbott,Theoretical Neuroscience:Computational and Mathematical Modeling of Neural Systems(Cambridge,Mass.:MIT Press,2001).

    54.D.O.Hebb,The Organization of Behavior:A Neuropsychological Theory(New York:Wiley,1949).

    55.Michael Domjan and Barbara Burkhard,The Principles of Learning and Behavior,3d ed.(Pacific Grove,Calif.:Brooks/Cole,1993).

    56.J.Quintana and J.M.Fuster,"From Perception to Action:Temporal Integrative Functions of Prefrontal and Parietal Neurons,"Cerebral Cortex 9.3(April-May 1999):213-21;W.F.Asaad,G.Rainer,and E.K.Miller,"Neural Activity in the Primate Prefrontal Cortex During Associative Learning,"Neuron 21.6(December 1998):1399-1407.

    57.G.G.Turrigiano et al.,"Activity-Dependent Scaling of Quantal Amplitude in Neocortical Neurons,"Nature 391.6670(February 26,1998):892-96;R.J.O'Brien et al.,"Activity-Dependent Modulation of Synaptic AMPA Receptor Accumulation,"Neuron 21.5(November 1998):1067-78.

    58.From"A New Window to View How Experiences Rewire the Brain,"Howard Hughes Medical Institute(December 19,2002),http://www.hhmi.org/news/svoboda2.html.see also J.T.Trachtenberg et al.,"Long-Term in Vivo Imaging of Experience-Dependent Synaptic Plasticity in Adult Cortex,"Nature 420.6917(December 2002):788-94,http://cpmcnet.columbia.edu/dept/physio/physi02/Trachtenberg_NATURE.pdf;and Karen Zita and Karel Svoboda,"Activity-Dependent Synaptogenesis in the Adult Mammalian Cortex,"Neuron 35.6(September 2002):1015-17,http://svobodalab.cshl.edu/reprints/2414zito02neur.pdf.

    59.See http://whyfiles.org/184make_memory/4.html.For more information on neuronal spines and memory,see J.Grutzendler et al.,"Long-Term Dendritic Spine Stability in the Adult Cortex,"Nature 420.6917(Dec.19-26,2002):812-16.

    60.S.R.Young and E.W.Rubel,"Embryogenesis of Arborization Pattern and Typography of Individual Axons in N.Laminaris of the Chicken Brain Stem,"Journal of Comparative Neurology 254.4(December 22,1986):425-59.

    61.Scott Makeig,"Swartz Center for Computational Neuroscience Vision Overview,"http://www.sccn.ucsd.edu/VisionOverview.html.

    62.D.H.Hubel and T.N.Wiesel,"Binocular Interaction in Striate Cortex of Kittens Reared with Artificial Squint,"Journal of Neurophysiology 28.6(November 1965):1041-59.

    63.Jeffrey M.Schwartz and Sharon Begley,The Mind and the Brain:Neuroplasticity and the Power of Mental Force(New York:Regan Books,2002).see also C.Xerri,M.Merzenich et al.,"The Plasticity of Primary Somatosensory Cortex Paralleling Sensorimotor Skill Recovery from Stroke in Adult Monkeys,"The Journal of Neurophysiology,79.4(April 1980):2119-48.see also S.Begley,"Survival of the Busiest,"Wall Street Journal,October 11,2002,http://webreprints.djreprints.com/606120211414.html.

    64.Paula Tallal et al.,"Language Comprehension in Language-Learning Impaired Children Improved with Acoustically Modified Speech,"Science 271(January 5,1996):81-84.Paula Tallal is Board of Governors Professor of Neuroscience and codirector of the CMBN(Center for Molecular and Behavioral Neuroscience)at Rutgers University,and cofounder and director of SCIL(Scientific Learning Corporation);see http://www.cmbn.rutgers.edu/faculty/tallal.html.See also Paula Tallal,"Language Learning Impairment:Integrating Research and Remediation,"New Horizons for Learning 4.4(August-September 1998),http://www.new horizons.org/neuro/tallal.htm,A.Pascual-Le-one,"The Brain That Plays Music and Is Changed by It,"Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 930(June 2001):315-29.See also note 63 above.

    65.F.A.Wilson,S.P.Scalaidhe,and P.S.Goldman-Rakic,"Dissociation of Object and Spatial Processing Domains in Primate Prefrontal Cortex."Science 260.5116(June 25,1993):1955-58.

    66.C.Buechel,J.T.Coull,and K.J.Friston,"The Predictive Value of Changes in Effective Connectivity for Human Learning,"Science 283.5407(March 5,1999):1538-41.

    67.他们绘制了形成临时和永久连接(用于回应各种刺激)的大脑细胞的精致图像,以此阐明了神经间的结构性变化(很多科学家一直坚信在存储记忆时这些变化肯定会发生)。"Pictures Reveal How Nerve Cells Form Connections to Store Short-and Long-Term Memories in Brain,"University of California,San Diego,November 29,2001,http://ucsdnews.ucsd.edu/news-rel/science/mcceli.htm;M.A.Colicos et al.,"Remodeling of Synaptic Action Induced by Photocon-ductive Stimulation,"Cell 107.5(November 30,2001):605-16.Video link:http://www.qflux.net/NeuroStim01.rm,Neural Silicon Interface-Quantum Flux.

    68.S.Lowel and W.Singer,"Selection of Intrinsic Horizontal Connections in the Visual Cortex by Correlated Neuronal Activity,"Science 255.5041(January 10,1992):209-12.

    69.K.Si et al.,"A Neuronal Isoform of CPEB Regulates Local Protein Synthesis and Stabilizes Synapse-Specific Long-Term Facilitation in Aplysia,"Cell 115.7(December 26,2003):893-904;K.Si,S.Lindquist,and E.R.Kandel,"A Neuronal Isoform of the Aplysia CPEB Has Prion-Like Properties,"Cell 115.7(December 26,2003):879-91.这些研究人员发现,CPEB经过其突触的形状变化,可能会帮助形成和保护长期记忆,这一点类似于朊粒变形(牵扯到疯牛病以及其他神经学疾病的蛋白质片段)。这项研究暗示了蛋白质在朊粒态时能够很好地完成工作,这也反驳了之前的广泛认识——有朊粒活动的蛋白质是有毒的,或者至少是不能正常工作的。这一朊粒机制可能也会在很多领域(例如癌症修复以及器官发育)中发挥作用,此猜想来自Eric R.Kandel,他是哥伦比亚大学的教授,从事于心理学、细胞生物物理学、精神病学以及分子生物物理学,并于2000年获得了医学诺贝尔奖。可见Whitehead Institute press release,http://www.wi.mit.edu/nap/features/nap_feature_memory.html.

    70.M.C.Anderson et al.,"Neural Systems Underlying the Suppression of Unwanted Memories,"Science 303.5655(January 9,2004):232-35.这一发现可以激励克服损伤记忆的新方法的发展。Keay Davidson,Study Suggests Brain Is Built to Forget:MRIs in Stanford Experiments Indicate Active Suppression of Unneeded Memories,San Francisco Chronicle,January 9,2004,http://www.sfgate.com/cgibin/article.cgi?file=/c/a/2004/01/09/FORGET.TMP&type=science.

    71.Dieter C.Lie et al.,"Neurogenesis in the Adult Brain:New Strategies for CNS Diseases,"Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology 44(2004):399-421.

    72.H.van Praag,G.Kempermann,and F.H.Gage,"Running Increases Cell Proliferation and Neurogenesis in the Adult Mouse Dentate Gyrus,"Nature Neuroscience 2.3(March 1999):266-70.

    73.Minsky and Papert,Perceptrons.

    74.Ray Kurzweil,The Age of Spiritual Machines(New York:Viking,1999),p.79.

    75.基础功能是非线性功能,它可以线性地连接起来(通过增加多种计重标准)来接近任何非线性功能。Pouget and Snyder,"Computational Approaches to Sensorimotor Transformations,"Nature Neuroscience 3.11 Supplement(November 2000):1192-98.

    76.T.Poggio,"A Theory of How the Brain Might Work,"in Proceedings of Cold Spring Harbor Symposia on Quantitative Biology 4(Cold Spring Harbor,N.Y.:Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press,1990),899-910.Also see T.Poggio and E.Bizzi,"Generalization in Vision and Motor Control,"Nature 431(2004):768-74.

    77.R.Llinas and J.P.Welsh,"On the Cerebellum and Motor Learning,"Current Opinion in Neurobiology 3.6(December 1993):958-65;E.Courchesne and G.Allen,"Prediction and Preparation,Fundamental Functions of the Cerebellum,"Learning and Memory 4.1(May-June 1997):1-35;J.M.Bower,"Control of Sensory Data Acquisition,"International Review of Neurobiology 41(1997):489-513.

    78.J.Voogd and M.Glickstein,"The Anatomy of the Cerebellum,"Trends in Neuroscience 21.9(September 1998):370-75;John C.Eccles,Masao Ito,and János Szentágothai,The Cerebellum as a Neuronal Machine(New York:Springer-Verlag,1967);Masao Ito,The Cerebellum and Neural Control(New York:Raven,1984).

    79.N.Bernstein,The Coordination and Regulation of Movements(New York:Pergamon Press,1967).

    80.U.S.Office of Naval Research press release,"Boneless,Brainy,and Ancient,"September 26,2001,http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2001-11/oonrbba112601.php;章鱼的触角“可以很好地作为新一代机器人手臂的基础,无论是在水中、太空中,还是在陆地上”。

    81.S.Grossberg and R.W.Paine,"ANeural Model of Cortico-Cerebellar Interactions During Attentive Imitation and Predictive Learning of Sequential Handwriting Movements,"Neural Networks 13.8-9(October-November 2000):999-1046.

    82.Voogd and Glickstein,"Anatomy of the Cerebellum";Eccles,Ito,and Szent gothai,Cerebellum as a Neuronal Machine;Ito,Cerebellum and Neural Control;R.Llinas,in Handbook of Physiology,vol.2,The Nervous System,ed.V.B.Brooks(Bethesda,Md.:American Physiological Society,1981),pp.831-976.

    83.J.L.Raymond,S.G.Lisberger,and M.D.Mauk,"The Cerebellum:A Neuronal Learning Machine?"Science 272.5265(May 24,1996):1126-31;J.J.Kim and R.F.Thompson,"Cerebellar Circuits and Synaptic Mechanisms Involved in Classical Eyeblink Conditioning,"Trends in Neuroscience 20.4(April 1997):177-81.

    84.该仿真包括10000颗粒细胞、900高尔基细胞、500苔状纤维细胞、20蒲金耶氏细胞,以及6个核细胞。

    85.J.F.Medina et al.,"Timing Mechanisms in the Cerebellum:Testing Predictions of a Large-Scale Computer Simulation,"Journal of Neuroscience 20.14(July 15,2000):5516-25;Dean Buonomano and Michael Mauk,"Neural Network Model of the Cerebellum:Temporal Discrimination and the Timing of Motor Reponses,"Neural Computation 6.1(1994):38-55.

    86.Medina et al.,"Timing Mechanisms in the Cerebellum."

    87.Carver Mead,Analog VLSI and Neural Systems(Boston:Addison-Wesley Longman,1989).

    88.Lloyd Watts,"Visualizing Complexity in the Brain,"in Computational Intelligence:The Experts Speak,D.Fogel and C.Robinson,eds.(Hoboken,N.J.:IEEE Press/Wiley,2003),pp.45-56,http://www.lloydwatts.com/wcci.pdf.

    89.出处同上。

    90.See http://www.lloydwatts.com/neuroscience.shtml.NanoComputer Dream Team,"The Law of Accelerating Returns,Part II,"http://nano Computer.org/index.cfm?content=90&Menu=19.

    91.可见http://info.med.yale.edu/bbs/faculty/she_go.html.

    92.Gordon M.Shepherd,ed.,The Synaptic Organization of the Brain,4th ed.(New York:Oxford University Press,1998),p.vi.

    93.E.Young,"Cochlear Nucleus,"in ibid.,pp.121-58.

    94.Tom Yin,"Neural Mechanisms of Encoding Binaural Localization Cues in the Auditory Brainstem,"in D.Oertel,R.Fay,and A.Popper,eds.,Integrative Functions in the Mammalian Auditory Pathway(New York:Springer-Verlag,2002),pp.99-159.

    95.John Casseday,Thane Premouw,and Ellen Covey,"The Inferior Colliculus:A Hub for the Central Auditory System,"in Oertel,Fay,and Popper,Integrative Functions in the Mammalian Auditory Pathway,pp.238-318.

    96.Diagram by Lloyd Watts,http://www.lloydwatts.com/neuroscience.shtml,adapted from E.Young,"Cochlear Nucleus"in G.Shepherd,ed.,The Synaptic Organization of the Brain,4th ed.(New York:Oxford University Press,2003[first published 1998]),pp.121-58;D.Oertel in D.Oertel,R.Fay,and A.Popper,eds.,Integrative Functions in the Mammalian Auditory Pathway(New York:Springer-Verlag,2002),pp.1-5;John Casseday,T.Fremouw,and E.Covey,"Inferior Colliculus"in ibid.;J.LeDoux,The Emotional Brain(New York:Simon&Schuster,1997);J.Rauschecker and B.Tian,"Mechanisms and Streams for Processing of‘What' and 'Where' in Auditory Cortex,"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 97.22:11800-11806.

    大脑区域建模:

    Cochlea:听觉感觉器官。镫骨的3万纤维转变运动体现声音的频谱时间。

    MC:多极细胞。测量光谱能量。

    GBC:球状多毛小球。转播信号,从听觉神经到侧面上橄榄体的复合体(包括LSO和MSO)。两耳比照水平上的信号调速和振幅编码。

    SBC:球形多毛细胞,提供到达时间的暂时强化,以此作为两耳间时间差计算的预处理。(两耳间不同的到达时间,用来说明声音是从哪传来的。)

    OC:章鱼细胞。检测瞬变现象。

    DCN:蜗背侧核。检测光谱边缘以及噪音水平校正。

    VNTB:斜方体腹核。耳蜗内调制外部毛细胞功能的反馈信号。

    VNLL,PON:外侧丘系腹核;周边橄榄核:从0C上处理瞬变。

    MSO:中间上橄榄体。计算两耳间时间差。

    LSO:侧面上橄榄体。也牵扯到计算两耳间时间差。

    ICC:下丘细胞的中心原子核。多种声音的表现形式的主要集成位置。

    ICx:下丘细胞的外侧原子核。进一步提炼声音定位。

    SC:上丘。听觉/视觉合并的地方。

    MGB:内侧膝状体。丘脑的听觉部分。

    LS:大脑边缘系统。由与情感、记忆、领域等其他有关的一些架构组成。

    AC:听觉皮质。

    97.M.S.Humayun et al.,"Human Neural Retinal Transplantation,"Investigative Ophthalmology and Visual Science 41.10(September 2000):3100-3106.

    98.Information Science and Technology Colloquium Series,May 23,2001,http://isandtcolloq.gsfc.nasa.gov/spring2001/speakers/poggio.html.

    99.Kah-Kay Sung and Tomaso Poggio,"Example-Based Learning for View-Based Human Face Detection,"IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence 20.1(1988):39-51,http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=275345&dl=ACM&coll=GUIDE.

    100.Maximilian Riesenhuber and Tomaso Poggio,"A Note on Object Class Representation and Categorical Perception,"Center for Biological and Computational Learning,MIT,AI Memo 1679(1999),ftp://publications.ai.mit.edu/aipublications/pdf/AIM-1679.pdf.

    101.K.Tanaka,"Inferoternporal Cortex and Object Vision,"Annual Review of Neuroscience 19(1996):109-39;Anuj Mohan,"Object Detection in Images by Components,"Center for Biological and Computational Learning,MIT,AI Memo 1664(1999),http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/cache/papers/cs/12185/ftp:zSzzSzpublications.ai.mit.eduzSzai-publicationszSz1500-1999zSzAIM-1664.pdf/mohan99object.pdf;Anuj Mohan,Constantine Papageorgiou,and Tomaso Poggio,"Example-Based Object Detection in Images bycomponents,"IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence 23.4(April 2001),http://cbcl.mit.edu/projects/cbd/publications/ps/mohanieee.pdf;B.Heisele,T.Poggio,and M.Pontil,"Face Detection in Still Gray Images,"Artificial Intelligence Laboratory,MIT,Technical Report AI Memo 1687(2000).Also see Bernd Heisele,Thomas Serre,and Stanley Bilesch,"Component-Based Approach to Face Detection,"Artificial Intelligence Laboratory and the Center for Biological and Computational Learning,MIT(2001),http://www.ai.mit.edulresearch/abstracts/abstracts2001/vision-applied-to-people/03heisele2.pdf.

    102.D.Van Essen and J.Gallant,"Neural Mechanisms of Form and Motion Processing in the Primate Visual System,"Neuron 13.1(July 1994):1-10.

    103.Shimon Ullman,High-Level Vision:Object Recognition and Visual Cognition(Cambridge,Mass.:MIT Press,1996);D.Mumford,On the Computational Architecture of the Neocortex.Ⅱ.

    The Role of Corticocortical Loops,"Biological Cybernetics 66.3(1992):241-51;R.Rao and D.Ballard,"Dynamic Model of Visual Recognition Predicts Neural Response Properties in the Visual Cortex,Neural Computation 9.4(May 15,1997):721-63.

    104.B.Roska and F.Werblin,"Vertical Interactions Across Ten Parallel,Stacked Representations in the Mammalian Retina,"Nature 410.6828(March 29,2001):583-87;University of California,Berkeley,news release,"Eye Strips Images of All but Bare Essentials Before Sending Visual Information to Brain,UC Berkeley Research Shows,"March 28,2001,www.berkeley.edu/news/media/releases/200l/03/28_wers1.html.

    105.基于Moravec的研究,Hans Moravec和Scott Friedman创办了一家叫做Seegrid的机器人公司。可见www.Seegrid.com。

    106.M.A.Mahowald and C.Mead,"The Silicon Retina,"Scientific American 264.5(May 1991):76-82.

    107.特别的,一个低通滤波器应用于感受器(例如光感受器)。将这些乘以邻近感受器的信号。如果在两个方向上都这么做,并且每一步操作都减去0,我们将可以获得一反映运动方向的输出结果。

    108.On Berger,see http://www.usc.edu/dept/engineering/CNE/faculty/Berger.html.

    109."The Worlds First Brain Prosthesis,"New Scientist 177.2386(March 15,2003):4,http://www.newscientist.com/news/news.jsp?id=ns99993488.

    110.Charles Choi,"Brain-Mimicking Circuits to Run Navy Robot,"UPI,June 7,2004,http://www.upi.com/view.cfm?StoryID=20040606-103352-6086r.

    111.Giacomo Rizzolatti et al.,"Functional Organization of Inferior Area 6 in the Macaque Monkey.II.Area F5 and the Control of Distal Movements,"Experimental Brain Research 71.3(1998):491-507.

    112.M.A.Arbib,"The Mirror System,Imitation,and the Evolution of Language,"in Kerstin Dautenhahn and Chrystopher L.Nehaniv,eds.,Imitation in Animals and Artifacts(Cambridge,Mass.:MIT Press,2002).

    113.Marc D.Hauser,Noam Chomsky,and W.Tecumseh Fitch,"The Faculty of language:What Is It,Who Has It,and How Did It Evolve?"Science 298(November 2002):156979,www.wjh.harvard.edu/~mnkylab/publications/languagespeech/Hauser,Chomsky,Fitch.pdf.

    114.Daniel C.Dennett,Freedom Evolves(New York:Viking,2003).

    115.See Sandra Blakeslee,"Humanity?Maybe Its All in the Wiring,"New York Times,December 11,2003,http://www.nytimes.com/2003112/09/science/09BRAI.html?ex=1386306000&en=294f5e91dd262a1a&ei=5007&partner=USERLAND.

    116.Antonio R.Damasio,DescartesError:Emotion,Reason and the Human Brain(New York:Putnam,1994).

    117.M.P.Maher et al.,"Microstructures for Studies of Cultured Neural Networks,"Medical and Biological Engineering and Computing 37.1(January 1999):110-18;John Wright et al.,"Towards a Functional MEMS Neurowell by Physiological Experimentation,"Technical Digest,ASME,1996 International Mechanical Engineering Congress and Exposition,Atlanta,November 1996,DSC(Dynamic Systems and Control Division),vol.59,pp.333-38.

    118.W.French Anderson,"Genetics and Human Malleability,"Hastings Center Report 23.20(January/February 1990):1.

    119.Ray Kurzweil,"A Wager on the Turing Test:Why I Think I Will Win,"KurzweilAI.net,April 9,2002,http://www.KurzweilAI.net/meme/frame.html?main=/articles/art0374.html.

    120.Robert A.Freitas Jr.提出了一个未来的基于纳米技术的大脑上传系统,而这一系统的效果可能是即时产生的。根据Freitas的说法(源自他的私人交流,2005年1月),“一个在http://www.nanomedicine.com/NMI/7.3.1.htm上提出的生动活泼的纤维网络,可以提供1018bit/s的数据流通速度,容积足够实时监控大脑状态。”这一纤维网络拥有30cm3的体积并可以产生4W~6W的热量,这两者都足够小,可以在一个拥有1400cm3体积和25W热量承受能力的大脑里安全安装。信号至多会传送几米的距离,而其速度则近乎于光速,所以从大脑内部产生信号开始到传递至外部计算机系统也仅仅用了约0.00001ms,这一时间明显要小于神经排放周期的最小时间(约5ms)平均间隔。约2μm的神经监视化学感应器可以捕获到产生自约5ms的窗口内的化学事件,既然这是一个粗略的扩散时间,也就是说,神经递质穿过2μm(http://www.nanomedicine.com/NMII/Tables/3.4.jpg)。这样的话,大脑状态监视可以很可能是即时产生的,至少在人类神经回应的时间规模上,让人感觉到“没有落下任何重要的东西”。

    121.M.C.Diamond et al.,"On the Brain of a Scientist:Albert Einstein,"Experimental Neurology 88(1985):198-204.

    第5章 GNR:三种重叠进行的革命

    1.SAMUEL BUTLER,(1835—1902),"Darwin Among the Machines,"Christ Church Press,1863年6月13日(1912年由Festing Jones在The Notebooks of Samuel Butler发表再版)。

    2.Peter Weibel,"Virtual Worlds:The Emperors New Bodies,"in Ars Electronica:Facing the Future,ed.Timothy Druckery(Cambridge,Mass.:MIT Press,1999),pp.207-23;下载地址是:http://www.aec.atlen/archiv_files/19902/EI990b_009.pdf。

    3.James Watson and Francis Crick,"Molecular Structure of Nucleic Acids:A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid,"Nature 171.4356(April 23,1953):737-38,http://www.nature.comlnature/dna50/watsoncrick.pdf.

    4.Robert Waterston quoted in"Scientists Reveal Complete Sequence of Human Genome,"CBC News,April 14,2003,http://www.cbc.ca/story/science/national/2003/04/14/genome030414.html.

    5.参见第2章。

    6.Crick和Watson原始的报告,今天读起来仍引人注目,在James A.Peters等的Classic Papers in Genetics(Englewood Cliffs,N.J.:Prentice-Hal,1959)中可以找到。双螺旋结构令人兴奋地诠释了成功和失败,在J.D.Waston的文章中可以找到,The Double Helix:A Personal Account of the Discovery of the Structure of DNA(New York:Atheneum,1968).Nature.com有Crick论文的合集,可以在线阅读http://www.nature.com/nature/focus/crick/index.html。

    7.Morislav Radman and Richard Wagner,"The High Fidelity of DNA Duplication,"Scientific American 259.2(August 1988):40-46.

    8.DNA和RNA的结构和行为分别在Gary Felsenfeld的"DNA"和James Darnell的"RNA"中有所描述,这些文章发表在Scientific American 253.4(October 1985),58-67页和68-78页。

    9.Mark A.Iobling and Chris Tyler-Smith,The Human Y Chromosome:An Evolutionary Marker Comes of Age,"Nature Reviews Genetics 4(August 2003):598-612;Helen Skaletsky et al.,"The Male-Specific Region of the Human Y Chromosome Is a Mosaic of Discrete Sequence Classes,Nature 423(June 19,2003):825-37.

    10.畸形的蛋白质可能是毒性最大的。研究表明,畸形的蛋白质可能位于体内疾病发展过程的中心位置。如此之多的疾病诸如阿尔茨海默病、帕金森氏病、人类疯牛病、囊胞性纤维症、白内障和糖尿病,都被认为是由于肌体的能力不足以完全消除畸形蛋白质所致。

    蛋白质分子执行细胞大部分的工作。蛋白质分子按照DNA蓝图在细胞内生成。它们起始时是长链的氨基酸分子,然后必须再折叠成精确的三维立体结构,以便实现例如酶、传输蛋白质等的功能。重金属毒素干扰这些酶类的正常功能,使蛋白质畸形的问题更加恶化。基因突变也使个体倾向于形成畸形蛋白质。

    当原细纤维开始粘合在一起时,它们形成细丝、小纤维,最终成为较大的球状体结构,即所谓的淀粉状斑块。直到最近,这些不能溶解的斑块的堆积物被看做是这些疾病的病理间接因素,但是现在已经知道,原细纤维才是罪魁祸首。原细纤维转变成不能溶解的斑块的速度与疾病的恶化无关。这就解释了为何一些个体在其脑髓中能发现大量的斑块堆积物,但却没有阿尔茨海默病的证据,而其他个体有少量可见的斑块却仍有疾病临床表现。有些人很快地形成淀粉体斑块,这样能防止其受到原细纤维更进一步的损害。这些人也拥有少量可见的淀粉体斑块。参见Per Hammarström、Frank Schneider和Jeffrey W.Kelly,"Trans-Suppression of Misfolding in an Amyloid Disease,"Science 293.5539(September 28,2001):2459-62。

    11.新生物学引人入胜的内容可以参见Horace F.Judson的The Eighth Day of Creation:The Makers of the Revolution in Biology(Woodbury,N.Y.:CSHL Press,1996)。

    12.Ray Kurzweil and Terry Grossman,M.D.,Fantastic Voyage:Live Long Enough to Live Forever(New York:Rodale,2004).See http://www.Fantastic-Voyage.net and http://www.RayandTerry.com.

    13.Ray Kurzweil,The 10%Solution for a Healthy Life:How to Elimiaate Virtually All Risk of Heart Disease and Cancer(New York:Crown Books,1993).

    14.Kurzweil和Grossman,Fantastic Voyage。全书中明确地表达了Kurzweil和Grossman的长寿计划。

    15.“生物学年龄”的测试,所谓的H-scan测试包括听觉反应时间、可听见的最高音、触觉敏感度、视觉反应时间、肌肉运动时间、肺活量(强迫吐气时)、带有判断的视觉反应时间、带有判断的肌肉运动时间、记忆(序列长度)、二选一按键时间以及视觉调节。作者在Frontier Medical Institude(Grossman的健康长寿诊所)做了这个测试。关于H-scan测试请登录http://www.FMIClinic.com.the H-scantest,参见Diagnostic和Lab Testing,Longevity Institute,Dallas,http://www.lidhealth.com/diagnostic.html。

    16.Kurzweil和Grossman,Fantastic Voyage,第10章:“kurzweil的个人计划”。

    17.同上。

    18.Aubrey D.N.J.de Grey,"The Foreseeability of Real Anti-Aging Medicine:Focusing the Debate,"Experimental Gerontology 38.9(September 2003):927-34;Aubrey D.N.J.de Grey,"An Engineers Approach to the Development of Real Anti-Aging Medicine,"Science of Aging,Knowledge,Environment 1(2003):Aubrey D.N.J.de Grey et al.,"Is Human Aging Still Mysterious Enough to Be Left Only to Scientists?"BioEssays 24.7(July 2002):667-76.

    19.Aubrey D.N.J.de Grey,ed.,Strategies for Engineered Negligible Senescence:Why Genuine Control of Aging May Be Foreseeable,Annals of the New YorkAcademy of Sciences,vol.1019(New York:New York Academy of Sciences,June 2004).

    20.除了提供不同类型细胞的功能之外,另外两个细胞控制基因表达的原因是环境诱导和发展过程。即使简单的生物如细菌,也可以打开和关闭蛋白质的合成,这取决于环境诱导。例如大肠埃希菌(E.coli),当其所在环境中有其他少量的消耗氮元素方式的时候,它可以关闭控制空气中氮气水平的蛋白质的合成。最近一项研究发现,1800个草莓基因中的200个基因会随着不同的发展阶段而变化。E.Marshall,"An Array of Uses:Expression Patterns in Straw-berries,Ebola,TB,and Mouse Cells,"Science 286.5439(1999):445

    21.连同蛋白质编码区域一起,基因包括控制序列,称作启动子和增强子,它们控制基因在何时何地表达。编码蛋白质的启动子基因恰好代表性地位于DNA“上游”。增强子激活启动子的使用,因而控制基因表达的比率。许多基因需要由增强子激活才能表达。增强子称作“基因的空间(细胞类型)、时间特异性表达的主要决定因素”;任意给定基因都拥有几个不同的连接它的增强子地址。(S.F.Gilbert,Developmental Biology,6th ed.[Sunderland,Mass.:Sinauer Associates,2000];可在线浏览www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?call=bv.View..ShowSection&rid=.0BpKYEBSPfx18nm8QOxH)。

    通过绑定到增强子或启动子区域,转录因子启动或者抑制基因的表达。关于转录因子的新知识已经改变了我们对基因表达的理解。Per Gilbert在《The Genetic Core of Development:Differential Gene Expression》中写道:“不再视基因本身为控制蛋白质合成的独立实体。当然,基因作用于蛋白质并受其反作用。Natalie Anger(1992)已经写道:‘一系列发现表明,DNA更类似于某一类型的政治家,被一圈蛋白质操作者和顾问所围绕,它们不时地非常有活力地按摩、扭转DNA,在身体的宏伟蓝图可以做有意义的事之前,彻底改造DNA。’”

    22.Bob Holmes,"Gene Therapy May Switch Off Huntingtons,"2003年3月13日,网址为http://www.newscientist.com/news/news.jsp?id=ns99993493。“作为反转遗传分析的强大工具,RNA迅速应用到许多与人类疾病有关基因的功能的研究上,尤其是肿瘤形成和传染病的研究”。J.C.Cheng、T.B.Moore和K.M.Sakamoto,"RNA Interference and Human Disease,"Molecular Genetics and Metabolism 80.1-2(October 2003):121-28。RNA干扰是一种“高度的序列特异性机制,”1.Zhang,D.K.Fogg和D.M.Waisman,"RNA Interference-Mediated Silencing of the S100A10 Gene Attenuates Plasmin Generation and Invasiveness of Colo 222 Colorecta Cancer Cells,"Journal of Biological Chemistry 279.3(January 16,2004):2053-62。

    23.每个芯片都包含合成的聚核苷酸,可以将其用来复制特异性基因序列。为确定哪些基因已经表达,作为样品,研究者从测试样例中将信使RNA隔离出来,将其转化为互补DNA(cDNA),用荧光染料标记,然后在薄片上运行样例。每个标记过的cDNA通过一段匹配序列紧跟一个寡核苷酸,显示出薄片上已知序列的区域。自动扫描仪决定哪个寡核苷酸已经绑定,因而得出哪个基因得以表达……"E.Marshall,"Do-It-Yourself Gene Watching,Science 286.5439(October 15,1999):444-47.

    24.同上。

    25.J.Rosamond and A.Allsop,"Harnessing the Power of the Genome in the Search for New Antibiotics,"Science 287.5460(March 17,2000):1973-76.

    26.T.R.Golub et al.,Molecular Classification of Cancer:Class Discovery and Class Prediction by Gene Expression Monitoring,Science 286.5439(October 15,1999):531-37.

    27.同上。正如A.Berns,"Cancer:Gene Expression in Diagnosis,"Nature 403(February 3,2000):491-92中报告所说。在另一项研究中,在老化的肌肉中,1%的基因表达有所减少。这些基因产生蛋白质,它们与能源生产和细胞构建有关,因此,减少老化带来的弱化很有意义。基因伴随着增强的表达产生压力蛋白质,用来修复DNA或者蛋白质的损伤。J.Marx,"Chipping Away at the Causes of Aging,"Science 287.5462(March 31,2000):2390.

    另一个例子,肝转移是结肠、直肠癌的普遍原因。这些转移对不同的依赖于基因档案的治疗有所反应。表达仿形是一种杰出的确定合适的治疗模式的方法。J.C.Sung et al.Genetic Heterogeneity of Colorectal Cancer Liver Metastases,Journal of Surgical Research 114.2(October 2003):251.

    最后一个例子,研究者们已经很艰难地分析了淋巴肉芽肿病的里-施细胞,因为在患病组织中它极端罕见。表达仿形提供了关于细胞遗产的线索。J.Cossman et al.,"Reed-Sternberg Cell Genome Expression Supports a B-Cell Lineage,"Blood 94.2(July 15,1999):411-16.

    28.T.Ueland et al.,"Growth Hormone Substitution Increases Gene Expression of Members of the IGF Family in Cortical Bone from Women with Adult Onset Growth Hormone Deficiency-Relation-ship with Bone Turn-Over,"Bone 33.4(October 2003):638-45.

    29.R.Lovett,"Toxi Cologists Brace for Genomics Revolution,"Science 289.5479(July 28,2000):536-37.

    30.体细胞转基因在一段时间内会影响体内细胞的子集。理论上也可能改变卵细胞和精子(生殖细胞)的遗传信息,从而将那些改变传递到下一代。这种治疗引来许多伦理上的关注,并且尚未尝试。"Gene Therapy,"Wikipedia,http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_therapy.

    31.基因编码在人类体内执行重要功能的蛋白质。不规则或者突变的基因编码的蛋白质不能执行这些功能,从而导致遗传缺陷和疾病。基因治疗的目标是代替有缺陷的基因,以便生产正常的蛋白质。可以通过多种方式来实现,但是最典型的方法是,使用一种称为载体的运输分子向病人的目标细胞里插入治疗基因。“当前,最通用的载体是一种病毒,它遗传上已经被改变成可以携带正常人类DNA。病毒已经逐步成为一种采用致病方法来封装和传递基因到人类细胞的方式。科学家们尝试利用这种能力,并操纵病毒的染色体来消除引起疾病的基因,并插入治疗基因”(人类基因组计划,"Gene Therapy,"http://www.ornl.gov/TechResources/Human_Genome/medicine/genetherapy.html)。参看人类基因组计划,以便获得更多关于基因疗法的知识。基因疗法研究的重要领域,目前有6个同行审阅的基因疗法的学术期刊和4个专业协会专注于此话题。

    32.K.R.Smith,"Gene Transfer in Higher Animals:Theoretical Considerations and KeyCon-cepts,"Journal of Biotechnology 99.1(October 9,2002):1-22.

    33.Anil Ananthaswamy,"Under Cover Genes Slip into the Brain,"March 20,2003,http://www.newscientist.com/news/news.jsp?id=ns99993520.

    34.A.E.Trezise et al.,"In Vivo Gene Expression:DNA Electrotransfer,"Current Opinion in Molecular Therapeutics 5.4(August 2003):397-404.

    35.Sylvia Westphal,"DNA Nanoballs Boost Gene Therapy,"May 12,2002,http://www.newscientist.com/news/news.jsp?id=ns99992257.

    36.L.Wu,M.Johnson,and M.Sato,Transcriptionally Targeted Gene Therapy to Detect and Treat Cancer,Trends in Molecular Medicine 9.10(October 2003):421-29.

    37.S.Westphal,"Virus Synthesized in a Fortnight,"November 14,2003,http://www.newscientist.com/news/news.jsp?id=ns99994383.

    38.G.Chiesa,"Recombinant Apolipoprotein A-I(Milano)Infusion into Rabbit Carotid Artery Rapidly Removes Lipid from Fatty Streaks,"Circulation Research 90.9(May 17,2002):974-80;P.K.Shah et al.,"High-Dose Recombinant Apolipoprotein A-I(Milano)Mobilizes Tissue Cholesterol and Rapidly Reduces Plaque Lipid and Macrophage Content in Apolipoprotein e-Deficient Mice,"Circulation 103.25(June 26,2001):3047-50.

    39.S.E.Nissen et al.,"Effect of Recombinant Apo A-I Milano on Coronary Atherosclerosis in Patients with Acute Coronary Syndromes:A Randomized Controlled Trial,"JAMA 290.17(November 5,2003):2292-2300.

    40.阶段2最近报告说"markedly increased HDL cholesterol levels and also decreased LDL cholesterol levels,"M.E.Brousseau等,"Effects of an Inhibitor of Cholesteryl Ester Transfer Protein on HDL Cholesterol,"New England Journal of Medicine 350.15(April 8,2004):1505-15,http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/abstract/350/15/1505.全球阶段3尝试于2003年年末开始。关于托彻普的信息可在辉瑞公司网址查阅:http://www.pfizer.com/are/investors_reports/annual_2003/review/p2003ar14_15.htm。

    41.O.J.Finn,"Cancer Vaccines:Between the Idea and the Reality,"Nature Reviews:Immunology 3.8(August 2003):630-41;R.C.Kennedy and M.H.Shearer,"A Role for Antibodies in Tumor Immunity,"International Reviews of Immunology 22.2(March-April 2003):141-72.

    42.T.F.Greten and E.M.Jaffee,"Cancer Vaccines,"Journal of Clinical On Cology 17.3(March 1999):1047-60.

    43."Cancer 'Vaccine' Results Encouraging,"BBCNews,January 8,2001,http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/1102618.stm,reporting on research by E.M.Jaffee et al.,"Novel Allogeneic Granulocyte-Macrophage Colony-Stimulating Factor-Secreting Tumor Vaccine for Pancreatic Cancer:A Phase I Trial of Safety and Immune Activation,"Journal of Clinical On Cology 19.1(January 1,2001):145-56.

    44.John Travis,"Fused Cells Hold Promise of Cancer Vaccines,"March 4,2000,http://www.sciencenews.org/articles/20000304/fob3.asp,referring to D.W.Kufe,"Smallpox,Polio and Now a Cancer Vaccine?"Nature Medicine 6(March 2000):252-53.

    45.J.D.Lewis,B.D.Reilly,and R.K.Bright,"Tumor-Associated Antigens:From Discovery to Immunity,"International Reviews of Immunology 22.2(March-April 2003):81-112.

    46.T.Boehm et al.,"Antiangiogenic Therapy of Experimental Cancer Does Not Induce Acquired Drug Resistance,"Nature 390.6658(November 27,1997):404-7.

    47.血管生成基础,“理解血管生成”,http://www.angio.org/understanding/content_understanding.html;L.K.Lassiter and M.A.Carducci,"Endothelin Receptor Antagonists in the Treatment of Prostate Cancer,"Seminars in On Cology 30.5(October 2003):678-88.该过程的详细说明参看国际肿瘤协会网站,"Understanding Angiogenesis,"http://press2.nci.nih.gov/sciencebehind/angiogenesis/angio02.htm.

    48.I.B.Roninson,"Tumor Cell Senescence in Cancer Treatment,"Cancer Research 63.11(June 1,2003):2705-15;B.R.Davies et al.,"Immortalization of Human Ovarian Surface Epithelium with Telomerase and Temperature-Sensitive SV40 Large T Antigen,"Experimental Cell Research 288.2(August 15,2003):390-402.

    49.参见R.C.Woodruff和J.N.Thompson Jr.,"The Role of Somatic and Germline Mutations in Aging and a Mutation Interaction Model of Aging,"Journal of Anti-Aging Medicine 6.1(Spring 2003):29-39.也参见18页和19页。

    50.Aubrey D.N.J.de Grey,"The Reductive Hotspot Hypothesis of Mammalian Aging:Membrane Metabolism Magnifies Mutant Mitochondrial Mischief,"European Journal of Biochemistry 269.8(April 2002):2003-9;P.F.Chinnery et al.,"Accumulation of Mitochondrial DNA Mutations in Ageing,Cancer,and Mitochondrial Disease:Is There acommon Mechanism?"Lancet 360.9342(October 26,2002):1323-25;A.D.de Grey,"Mitochondrial Gene Therapy:An Arena for the Biomedical Use of Inteins,"Trends in Biotechnology 18.9(September 2000):394-99.

    51.“疫苗的概念个别违反神经退行性疾病,例如阿尔茨海默病明显地背离传统认为的机制和治疗,然而,阿尔茨海默病和多发性硬化症的治疗疫苗已经在动物身上和临床上经过验证。但是,这种方法在提供益处的同时可能会引发炎症。”(H.L.Weiner and D.J.Selkoe,"Inflammation and Therapeutic Vaccination in CNS Diseases,"Nature 420.6917[December 19-26,2002]:879-84).这些研究者表示,滴鼻剂形式的疫苗可以减缓大脑的阿尔茨海默病的恶化。H.L.Weiner et al.,"Nasal Administration of Amyloid-beta Peptide Decreases Cerebral Amyloid Burden in a Mouse Model of Alzheimers Disease,"Annals of Neurology 48.4(October 2000):567-79.

    52.S.Vasan,P.Foiles,and H.Founds,"Therapeutic Potential of Breakers of Advanced Glycation End Product-Protein Crosslinks,"Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics 419.1(November 1,2003):89-96;D.A.Kass,"Getting Better Without AGE:New Insights into the Diabetic Heart,"Circulation Research 92.7(April 18,2003):704-6.

    53.S.Graham,"Methuselah Worm Remains Energetic for Life,"October 27,2003,www.sciam.com/article.cfm?chanID=sa003&articleID=000C601F-8711-1F99-86FB83414B7F0156.

    54.Ron Weiss在普林斯顿大学的主页(http://www.princeton.edu/~rweiss)列出了他的出版物,例如Genetic Circuit Building Blocks for Cellular Computation,communications,and Signal Processing,Natural Computing,an International Journal 2.1(January 2003):47-84.

    55.S.L.Garfinkel,"Biological Computing,"Technology Review(May-June 2000),http://static.highbeam.com/t/technologyreview/may012000/biological Computing.

    56.同上。也可参看MIT媒体实验室网址目前研究的条目。http://www.media.mit.edu/research/index.html.

    57.一个合理的解释是:“哺乳类动物中,雌性胚胎有两条X染色体而雄性有一条X染色体。在雌性的早期发展中,其中一条X染色体和其上的大多数基因正常情况下沉默着或者失活的。那样,雌性和雄性的基因表达总数是一样的。但是在克隆动物身上,来自捐赠的细胞核中的X染色体已经是灭活的。必须重新设定程序,然后再次失活,这样可能会引入错误。”

    CBC新闻在线,"Genetic Defects May Explain Cloning Failures,"May 27,2002,http://www.cbc.ca/stories/2002/05/27/cloning_errors020527.That story reports on F.Xue et al.,"Aberrant Patterns of X Chromosome Inactivation in Bovine Clones,"Nature Genetics 31.2(June 2002):216-20.

    58.Rick Weiss,"Clone Defects Point to Need for 2 Genetic Parents,"Washington Post,May 10,1999,http://www.gene.ch/genet/1999/Jun/msg00004.html.

    59.A.Baguisi et al.,"Production of Goats by Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer,"Nature Biotechnology 5(May 1999):456-61.更多关于Genzyme Transgenics Corporation(前称健赞公司)、路易斯安那州立大学以及塔夫斯大学医药学院之间的合作,参看1999年4月27日新闻稿,"Genzyme Transgenics Corporation Announces First Successful Cloning of Transgenic Goat,"http://www.transgenics.com/pressreleases/pr042799.html.

    60.Luba Vangelova,"True or False?Extinction Is Forever,"Smithsonian,June 2003,http://www.smithsonianmag.com/smithsonian/issues03/jun03/phenomena.html.

    61.J.B.Gurdon and A.Colman,"The Future of Cloning,"Nature 402.6763(December 16,1999):743-46;Gregory Stock and John Campbell,eds.,Engineering the Human Germline:An Exploration of the Science and Ethics of Altering the Genes We Pass to Our Children(New York:Oxford University Press,2000).

    62.正如斯科普里斯研究机构所指出的,“去分化或者反转血缘限制的细胞成多功能的起源细胞这样的能力,可能会克服临床应用上许多使用胚胎干细胞和成熟的干细胞的障碍(无效的分化,拒绝外源细胞,有效的隔离和表达等)”。通过有效的特殊细胞分化消失的过程,健康的、丰富的、容易理解的成熟细胞可用于生成功能不同的细胞,以此来修复受损的组织和器官,这都是可能的。(http://www.scripps.edu/chem/ding/sciences.htm)

    已分化的细胞类型直接转换到另一类型——该过程称为分化转化,产生同基因(病人自身的)来代替病的或者损坏的细胞或组织。成熟的干细胞展示出比预期更广大的分化潜能,并且除了在驻留方面还有助于肌体组织。最近在分化转化方面的进展包括核移植、控制细胞培养条件、异位的基因表达感应、细胞萃取物中分子的提取。这些方法打开了一扇大门,直通设计同基因替代细胞的林荫大道。为了避免不可预知的组织转移,细胞核重编需要控制和继承后成性的修改。需要相当大的精力才能解开分子进程,注释557,潜在的细胞核重编和评估重编细胞内方面改变的稳定性。

    Quoted from P.Collas and Anne-Marl Hakelien,"Teaching Cells New Tricks,"Trends in Biotechnology 21.8(August 2003):354-61;P.Collas,"Nuclear Reprogramming in Cell-Free Extracts,"Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London,B 358.1436(August 29,2003):1389-95.

    63.研究者们已经在实验室里将人类肝脏细胞转化为胰腺细胞:Jonathan Slack等,"Experimental Conversion of Liver to Pancreas,"Current Biology 13.2(January 2003):105-15。研究者们使用细胞提取物来重编细胞,从而使其在行为上类似其他细胞;例如,皮肤细胞重编成能够展示T细胞特征的细胞。Anne-Mari Hakelien et al.,"Reprogramming Fibroblasts to Express T-Cell Functions Using Cell Extracts,"Nature Biotechnology 20.5(May 2002):460-66;Anne-Mari Hakelien and P.Collas,"Novel Approaches to Transdifferentiation,"Cloning Stem Cells 4.4(2002):379-87.See also David Tosh and Jonathan M.W.Slack,"How Cells Change Their Phenotype,"Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology 3.3(March 2002):187-94.

    64.参见上面注释21关于转录因子的描述。

    65.R.P.Lanza et al.,"Extension of Cell Life-Span and Telomere Length in Animals Cloned from Senescent Somatic Cells,"Science 288.5466(April 28,2000):66-9.See also J.C.Ameisen,"On the Origin,Evolution,and Nature of Programmed Cell Death:A Timeline of Four Billion Years,"Cell Death and Differentiation 9.4(April 2002):367-93;Mary-Ellen Shay,"Transplantation Without a Donor,"Dream:The Magazine of Possibilities(Childrens Hospital,Boston),Fall 2001.

    66.在2000年的Immune Tolerance Network(http://www.immunetolerance.org),美国国家卫生研究所(NIH)和幼型糖尿病基金会计划宣布一项多通道的临床试验来评价胰岛移植的效果。

    按照临床试验的研究摘要(James Shapiro,"Campath-Ifi and One-Year Temporary Sirolimus Maintenance Monotherapy in Clinical Islet Transplantation,"http://www.immunetolerance.org/public/clinical/islet/trials/shapiro2.html),“这种疗法不是对所有Ⅰ型糖尿病病人适合,即使在胰岛供给方面没有限制,因为癌症长期潜在的危险,威胁生命的传染病和药物副作用与抗排斥治疗有关。如果耐受性可以达到预先最小的风险,那么胰岛移植将可以安全应用于糖尿病的治疗过程中,最终,在孩子们的诊断过程中。”

    67."Lab Grown Steaks Nearing Menu,"http://www.newscientist.com/news/news.jsp?id=ns99993208,包括工艺问题的讨论。

    68.每一维度上特征尺寸的对分时间是5年。参看第2章的讨论。

    69.Robert A.Freitas Jr的分析表明,用机械的respirocytes代替一个人10%的血液红细胞,将允许一个人在4小时内屏住呼吸,大约相当于240分钟还多(关于所有生物学血液红细胞持续时间可行性)。由于这项增长源自于只代替10%的血液红细胞,所以respirocytes将达到成千上万倍的有效性。

    70.纳米技术是“彻底的、廉价的对物质结构的控制技术,它基于分子挨着分子控制产品和副产品;产品和分子制造的进程,包括分子机器”(Eric Drexler and Chris Peterson,Unbounding the Future:The Nanotechnology Revolution(New York:William Morrow,1991))。根据作者所说:

    纳米技术正朝向较大地控制物质结构的方向移动,过往的先进技术如微波管、激光、超导体、卫星、机器人等已经慢慢地从工厂走出,虽然开始时价格很高以及应用有限,但是分子制造将更类似于计算机:一种超大使用范围的灵活技术。分子制造将不会像计算机那样,从传统的工厂慢慢走出来;它将替代工厂,替代或者升级工厂的产品。这是件非常基础的新鲜事,不仅仅是另一个20世纪的小玩意。在科学上,它将起于20世纪的趋势,但在技术上、经济上和环境事务上,它将打破趋势。(第1章)

    Drexler和Peterson概述纳米技术革命影响的可能范围:有效的太阳能细胞“像新闻纸一样廉价并且像沥青一样坚韧”,分子机制可以在生物递降分解前的6小时内杀灭冷病毒,一按电钮,免疫机器就可以破坏体内恶性肿瘤细胞,袖珍的超级计算机,化石燃料消耗殆尽,太空旅行,消失物种的复原。同样参看E.Drexler,Engines of Creation(New York:Anchor Books,1986)。前瞻协会有一个帮助性的关于纳米技术常见问题的解答列表(http://www.foresight.org/NanoRev/FIFAQ1.html)和其他信息。其他网站资源包括National Nanotechnology Initiative(http://www.nano.gov),http://nanotechweb.org,Dr.Ralph Merkle的纳米技术主页(http://www.zyvex.com/nano)和Nanotechnology,在线期刊(http://www.iop.org/EJ/journal/0957-4484)。纳米技术广泛使用的材料可以在作者的网址找到,http://www.kurzweilAI.net/meme/frame.html?m=18。

    71.Richard P.Feynman,"Theres Plenty of Room at the Bottom,"American Physical Society annual meeting,Pasadena,California,1959;文字记录在http://www.zyvex.com/nanotech/feynman.html.

    72.John von Neumann,Theory of Self-Reproducing Automata,A.W.Burks,ed.(Urbana:University of Illinois Press,1966).

    73.关于运动学机器复制最为综合的调查在Robert A.Freitas Jr.和Ralph C.Merkle的Kinematic Self-Replicating Machines(Georgetown,Tex.:Landes Bioscience,2004),http://www.MolecularAssembler.com/KSRM.htm.

    74.K.Eric Drexler,Engines of Creation,and K.Eric Drexler,Nanosystems:Molecular Machinery,Manufacturing,and Computation(New York:Wiley Interscience,1992).

    75.参见第3章关于纳米电子管电路的讨论,包括第3章的第9个注释,关于纳米电子管电路潜力的分析。

    76.K.Eric Drexler and Richard E.Smalley,"Nanotechnology:Drexler and Smalley Make the Case for and Against 'Molecular Assemblers,'"Chemical and Engineering News,November 30,2003,http://pubs.acs.org/cen/coverstory/8148/8148counterpoint.html.

    77.Ralph C.Merkle,"A Proposed 'Metabolism' for a Hydrocarbon Assembler,"Nanotechnology 8(December 1997):149-62,http://www.iop.org/EJ/abstract/0957-4484/8/4/001 or http://www.zyvex.com/nanotech/hydroCarbonMetabolism.html.See also Ralph C.Merkle,"Binding Sites for Use in a Simple Assembler,"Nanotechnology 8(1997):23-28,http://www.zyvex.com/nanotech/bindingSites.html;Ralph C.Merkle,"A New Family of Six Degree of Freedom Positional Devices,"Nanotechnology 8(1997):47-52,http://www.zyvex.com/nanotech/6dof.html;Ralph C.Merkle,"Casing an Assembler,"Nanotechnology 10(1999):315-22,http://www.zyvex.com/nanotech/casing;Robert A.Freitas Jr.,"A Simple Tool for Positional Diamond Mechanosynthesis,and Its Method of Manufacture,"U.S.Provisional Patent Application No.60/543,802,filed February 11,2004,过程描述的讲稿在http://www.MolecularAssembler.com/Papers/PathDiamMolMfg.htm;Ralph C.Merkle and Robert A.Freitas Jr.,"Theoretical Analysis of a Carbon-Carbon Dimer Placement Tool for Diamond Mechanosynthesis,"Journal of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology 3(August 2003):319-24,http://www.rfreitas.com/Nano/JNNDimerTool.pdf;Robert A.Freitas Jr.and Ralph C.Merkle,Merkle-Freitas Hydrocarbon Molecular Assembler;in Kinematic Self-Replicating Machines,section 4.11.3(Georgetown,Tex.:Landes Bioscience,2004),pp.130-35,http://www.MolecularAssembler.com/KSRM/4.11.3.htm.

    78.Robert A.Freitas Jr.,Nanomedicine,vol.1,Basic Capabilities,section 6.3.4.5,"Chemoelectric Cells"(Georgetown,Tex.:Landes Bioscience,1999),pp.152-54,http://www.nanomedicine.com/NMI/6.3.4.5.htm;Robert A.Freitas Jr.,Nanomedicine,vol.1,Basic Capabilities,section 6.3.4.4,"Glucose Engines"(Georgetown,Tex.:Landes Bioscience,1999),pp.149-52,http://www.nanomedicine.com/NMI/6.3.4.4.htm;K.Eric Drexler,Nanosystems:Molecular Machinery,Manufacturing,and Computation,section 16.3.2,"Acoustic Power and Control"(New York:Wiley Interscience,1992),pp.472-76.See also Robert A.Freitas Jr.and Ralph C.Merkle,Kinematic Self-Replicating Machines,appendix B.4,"Acoustic Transducer for Power and Control"(Georgetown,Tex.:Landes Bioscience,2004),pp.225-33,http://www.MolecularAssembler.com/KSRM/AppB.4.htm.

    79.关于运动学机器复制最为综合的调查是由Robert A.Freitas Jr.和Ralph C.Merkle编写的Kinematic Self-Replicating Machines,第4章,Microscale and Molecular Kinematic Machine Replicators(Georgetown,Tex.:Landes Bioscience,2004),pp.89-144,http://www.MolecularAssembler.com/KSRM/4.htm.

    80.Drexler,Nanosystems,第441页.

    81.关于运动学机器复制最为综合的调查是由Robert A.Freitas Jr.和Ralph C.Merkle编写的Kinematic Self-Replicating Machines,第4章Microscale and Molecular Kinematic Machine Replicators(Georgetown,Tex.:Landes Bioscience,2004),pp.89-144,http://www.MolecularAssembler.com/KSRM/4.htm.

    82.T.R.Kelly,H.De Silva,and R.A.Silva,"Unidirectional Rotary Motion in a Molecular System,"Nature 401.6749(September 9,1999):150-52.

    83.Carlo Montemagno and George Bachand,"Constructing Nanomechanical Devices Powered by Biomolecular Motors,"Nanotechnology 10(1999):225-31;George D.Bachand and Carlo D.Montemagno,"Constructing Organic/Inorganic NEMS Devices Powered by Biomolecular Motors,"Biomedical Microdevices 2.3(June 2000):179-84.

    84.N.Koumura et al.,"Light-Driven Monodirectional Molecular Rotor,"Nature 401.6749(September 9,1999):152-55.

    85.Berkeley Lab,"A Conveyor Belt for the NanoAge,"April 28,2004,http://www.lbl.gov/Science-Articles/Archive/MSD-conveyor-belt-for-nanoage.html.

    86."Study:Self-Replicating Nanomachines Feasible,"June 2,2004,http://www.smalltimes.com/document_display.cfm?section_id=53&document_id=8007,关于Tihamer Toth-Pejel的报道,"Modeling Kinematic Cellular Automata,"April 30,2004,http://www.niac.usra.edu/files/studies/final_report/pdf/883Toth-Fejel.pdf.

    87.W.U.Dittmer,A.Reuter,and F.C.Simmel,"A DNA-Based Machine That Can Cyclically Bind and Release Thrombin,"Angewandte Chemie International Edition 43(2004):3550-53.

    88.Shiping Liao and Nadrian C.Seeman,"Translation of DNA Signals into Polymer Assembly Instructions,"Science 306(December 17,2004):2072-74,http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/reprint/306/5704/2072.pdf.

    89.Scripps Research Institute,"Nanoorigami,"February 11,2004,http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2004-02/srin021004.php.

    90.Jenny Hogan,"DNA Robot Takes Its First Steps,"May 6,2004,http://www.newscientist.com/news/news.jsp?id=ns99994958,reporting on Nadrian Seeman and William Sherman,"A Precisely Controlled DNA Biped Walking Device,"Nano Letters 4.7(July 2004):1203-7.

    91.Helen Pearson,"Construction Bugs Find Tiny Work,"Nature News,July 11,2003,http://www.nature.com/news/2003/030707/full/030707-9.html.

    92.Richard E.Smalley,"Nanofallacies:Of Chemistry,Love and Nanobots,"Scientific American 285.3(September 2001):76-77;请参见以下链接:http://www.sciamdigital.com/browse.cfm?sequencenameCHAR=item2&methodnameCHAR=resource_getitembrowse&interfacenameCHAR=browse.cfm&ISSUEID_CHAR=6A628AB3-17A5-4374-B100-3185A0CCC86&ARTICLEID_CHAR=F90C4210-C153-4B2F-83A1-28F2012B637&sc=I100322.

    93.参见下面第108和109关于参考文献的注释。同时参见Drexler的Nanosystems关于他的计划。样品证明,参见Xiao Yan Chang、Martin Perry、James Peploski、Donald L.Thompson 和Lionel M.Raff,"Theoretical Studies of Hydrogen-Abstraction Reactions from Diamond and Diamondlike Surfaces,"Journal of Chemical Physics 99(September 15,1993):4748-58.See also L.J.Lauhon and W.Ho,"Inducing and Observing the Abstraction of a Single Hydrogen Atom in Bimolecular Reaction with a Scanning Tunneling Microscope,"Journal of Physical Chemistry 105(2000):3987-92;G.Allis and K.Eric Drexler,"Design and Analysis of a Molecular Tool for Carbon Transfer in Mechanosynthesis,"Journal of Computational and Theoretical Nanoscience 2.1(March-April 2005,in press).

    94.Lea Winerman,"How to Grab an Atom,"Physical Review Focus,May 2,2003,http://focus.aps.org/story/v11/st19,reporting on Noriaki Oyabu,"Mechanical Vertical Manipulation of Selected Single Atoms by Soft Nanoindentation Using a Near Contact Atomic Force Microscope,"Physical Review Letters 90.17(May 2,2003):176102.

    95.Robert A.Freitas Jr.,"Technical Bibliography for Research on Positional Mechanosynthesis,"前瞻协会网站December 16,2003,http://foresight.org/stage2/mechsynthbib.html.

    96.参见Ralph C.Merkle的"Thats Impossible!How Good Scientists Reach Bad Conclusions"第3页的方程式和相应的说明,http://www.zyvex.com/nanotech/impossible.html。

    97.因为ΔX c仅仅是直径约为0.3nm的典型原子的电子云的5%,利用在纳米机械结构的制造和稳定性方面的适度结构约束(即使在大多数液体的沸点时,每个分子只能在平均位置上移动大约0.07nm)"Robert A.Freitas Jr.,Nanomedicine,vol.1,Basic Capabilities,section 2.1,"Is Molecular Manufacturing Possible?(Georgetown,Tex.:Landes Bioscience,1999),p.39,http://www.nanomedicine.com/NMI/2.1.htm#p9.

    98.Robert A.Freitas Jr.,Nanomedicine,vol.1,Basic Capabilities,section 6.3.4.5,"Chemoelectric Cells"(Georgetown,Tex.:Landes Bioscience,1999),pp.152-54,http://www.nanomedicine.com/NMI/6.3.4.5.htm.

    99.Montemagno and Bachand,"Constructing Nanomechanical Devices Powered by Biomolecular Motors."

    100.前瞻协会主席K.Eric Drexler给诺贝尔奖获得者Richard Smeally的公开信,http://www.foresight.org/NanoRev/Letter.html,and reprinted here:http://www.KurzweilAI.net/meme/frame.html?main=/articles/art0560.html.完整的故事可以在Ray X Kurzweil的"The Drexler-Smalley Debate on Molecular Assembly"中找到,http://www.KurzweilAI.net/meme/frame.htrnl?main=/articles/art0604.html.

    101.K.Eric Drexler and Richard E.Smalley,"Nanotechnology:Drexler and Smalley Make the Case for and Against 'Molecular Assemblers,' "Chemical&Engineering News 81.48(Dec.1,2003):37-42,http://pubs.acs.org/cen/coverstory/8148/8148counterpoint.html.

    102.A.Zaks and A.M.Klibanov,"Enzymatic Catalysis in Organic Media at 100 Degrees C,"Science 224.4654(June 15,1984):1249-51.

    103.Patrick Bailey,"Unraveling the Big Debate About Small Machines,"BetterHumans,August 16,.2004,http://www.betterhumans.com/Features/Reports/report.aspx?articleID=2004-08-16-1.

    104.Charles B.Musgrave et al.,"Theoretical Studies of a Hydrogen Abstraction Tool for Nanotechnology,"Nanotechnology 2(October 1991):187-95;Michael Page and Donald W.Brenner,"Hydrogen Abstraction from a Diamond Surface:Ab initio Quantum Chemical Study with Constrained Isobutane as a Model,"Journal of the American Chemical Society 113.9(1991):3270-74;Xiao Yan Chang,Martin Perry,James Peploski,Donald L.Thompson,and Lionel M.Raff,"Theoretical Studies of Hydrogen-Abstraction Reactions from Diamond and Diamondlike Surfaces,"Journal of Chemical Physics 99(September 15,1993):4748-58;J.W.Lyding,K.Hess,G.C.Abeln,et al.,"UHV-STM Nanofabrication and Hydrogen/Deuterium Desorption from Silicon Surfaces:Implications for CMOS Technology,"Applied Surface Science 132(1998):221;http://www.hersamgroup.northwestern.edu/publications.html;E.T.Foley et al.,"Cryogenic UHVSTM Study of Hydrogen and Deuterium Desorption from Silicon(100),"Physical Review Letters 80(1998):1336-39,http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v80/i6/p1336_1;L.J.Lauhon and W.Ho,"Inducing and Observing the Abstraction of a Single Hydrogen Atom in Bimolecular Reaction with a Scanning Tunneling Microscope,"Journal of Physical Chemistry 105(2000):3987-92.

    105.Stephen P.Walch and Ralph C.Merkle,"Theoretical Studies of Diamond Mechanosynthesis Reactions,"Nanotechnology 9(September 1998):285-96;Fedor N.Dzegilenko,Deepak Srivastava,and Subhash Saini,"Simulations of Carbon Nanotube Tip Assisted Mechano-Chemical Reactions on a Diamond Surface,"Nanotechnology 9(December 1998):325-30;Ralph C.Merkle and Robert A.Freitas Jr.,"Theoretical Analysis of a Carbon-Carbon Dimer Placement Tool for Diamond Mechanosynthesis,"Journal of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology 3(August 2003):319-24,http://www.rfreitas.com/Nano/DimerTool.htm;Jingping Peng,Robert A.Freitas Jr.,and Ralph C.Merkle,"Theoretical Analysis of Diamond MechanoSynthesis.Part I.Stability of C2 Mediated Growth of Nanocrystalline Diamond C(1lO)Surface,"Journal of Computational and Theoretical Nanoscience 1(March 2004):62-70,http://www.molecularassembler.com/JCTNPengMar04.pdf;David J.Mann,Jingping Peng,Robert A.Freitas Jr.,and Ralph C.Merkle,"Theoretical Analysis of Diamond MechanoSynthesis.Part II.C2 Mediated Growth of Diamond C(1lO)Surface via Si/Ge-Triadamantane Dimer Placement Tools,"Journal of Computational and Theoretical Nanoscience 1(March 2004),71-80,http://www.molecularassembler.com/JCTNMannMar04.pdf.

    106.关于氢原子提取工具和碳元素沉淀工具的分析已经涉及很多人,包括:Donald W.Brenner,Tahir Cagin,Richard J.Colton,K.Eric Drexler,Fedor N.Dzegilenko,Robert A.Freitas Jr.,William A.Goddard Ⅲ,J.A.Harrison,Charles B.Musgrave,Ralph C.Merkle,Michael Page,Jason K.Perry,Subhash Saini,O.A.Shenderova,Susan B.Sinnott,Deepak Srivastava,Stephen P.Walch,和Carter T.White.

    107.Ralph C.Merkle,"A Proposed 'Metabolism' for a Hydrocarbon Assembler,"Nanotechnology 8(December 1997):14-62,http://www.iop.org/EJ/abstraet/0957-4484/8/4/001 or http://www.zyvex.com/nanotech/hydroCarbonMetabolism.html.

    108.有价值的参考文献:Robert A.Freitas Jr.,"Technical Bibliography for Research on Positional Mechanosynthesis,"前瞻协会网站,2003年12月16日,http://foresight.org/stage2/mechsynthbib.html;Wilson Ho and Hyojune Lee,"Single Bond Formation and Characterization with aScanning Tunneling Microscope,"Science 286.5445(November 26,1999):1719-22,http://www.physics.uci.edu/~wilsonho/stmiets.html;K.Eric Drexler,Nanosystems第8章;Ralph Merkle,"Proposed 'Metabolism' for a Hydrocarbon Assembler";Musgrave et al.,"Theoretical Studies of a Hydrogen Abstraction Tool for Nanotechnology";Michael Page and Donald W.Brenner,"Hydrogen Abstraction from a Diamond Surface:Ab initio Quantum Chemical Study with Constrained Isobutane as a Model,"Journal of the American Chemical Society 113.9(1991):3270-74;D.W.Brenner et al.,"Simulated Engineering of Nanostructures,"Nanotechnology 7(September 1996):161-67,http://www.zyvex.com/nanotech/nano4/brennerPaper.pdf;S.P.Walch,W.A.Goddard Ⅲ,and Ralph Merkle,"Theoretical Studies of Reactions on Diamond Surfaces,"Fifth Foresight Conference on Molecular Nanotechnology,1997,http://www.foresight.org/Conferences/MNT05/Abstracts/Walcabst.html;Stephen P.Walch and Ralph C.Merkle,"Theoretical Studies of Diamond Mechanosynthesis Reactions,"Nanotechnology 9(September 1998):285-96;Fedor N.Dzegilenko,Deepak Srivastava,and Subhash Saini,"Simulations of Carbon Nanotube Tip Assisted Mechano-Chemical Reactions on a Diamond Surface,"Nanotechnology 9(December 1998):325-30;J.W.Lyding et al.,"UHV-STM Nanofabrication and Hydrogen/Deuterium Desorption from Silicon Surfaces:Implications for CMOS Technology,"Applied Surface Science 132(1998):221,http://www.hersamgroup.north-westem.edu/publications.html;E.T.Foley et al.,"Cryogenic UHV-STM Study of Hydrogen and Deuterium Desorption from Silicon(100),"Physical Review Letters 80(1998):1336-39,http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v80/i6/p1336_1;M.C.Hersam,G.CAbeln,and J.W.Lyding,"An Approach for Efficiently Locating and Electrically Contacting Nanostructures Fabricated via UHV-STM Lithography on Si(100),"Microelectronic Engineering 47(1999):23537;L.J.Lauhon and W.Ho,"Inducing and Observing the Abstraction of a Single Hydrogen Atom in Bimolecular Reaction with a Scanning Tunneling Microscope,"Journal of Physical Chemistry 105(2000):3987-92,http://www.physics.uci.edu/~wilsonho/stmiets.html.

    109.Eric Drexler,"Drexler Counters,"2003年11月1日首次发布于KurzweilAI.net:http://www.KurzweilAI.net/meme/frame.html?main=/articles/art0606.html.同时参见K.Eric Drexler,Nanosystems:Molecular Machinery,Manufacturing,and Computation(New York:Wiley Interscience,1992),chapter 8;Ralph C.Merkle,"Foresight Debate with Scientific American"(1995),http://www.foresight.org/SciAmDebate/SciAmResponse.html;Wilson Ho and Hyojune Lee,"Single Bond Formation and Characterization with a Scanning Tunneling Microscope,"Science 286.5445(November 26,1999):1719-22,http://www.physics.uci.edu/~wilsonho/stmiets.html;K.Eric Drexler,David Forrest,Robert A.Freitas Jr.,J.Storrs Hall,Neil Jacobstein,Tom McKendree,Ralph Merkle,and Christine Peterson,"On Physics,Fundamentals,and Nanorobots:A Rebuttal to Smalleys Assertion that Self-Replicating Mechanical Nanorobots Are Simply Not Possible:A Debate About Assemblers"(2001),http://www.imm.org/SciAmDebate2/smalley.html.

    110.参见http://pubs.acs.org/cen/coverstory/8148/8148counterpoint.html;http://www.kurzweilAI.net/meme/frame.html?main=/articles/art0604.html?

    111.D.Maysinger et al.,"Block Copolymers Modify the Internalization of Micelle-In Corporated Probes into Neural Cells,"Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 1539.3(June 20,2001):205-17;R.Savic et al.,"Micellar Nanocontainers Distribute to Defined Cytoplasmic Organelles,"Science300.5619(April 25,2003):615-18.

    112.T.Yamada et al.,"Nanopartides for the Delivery of Genes and Drugs to Human Hepatocytes,"Nature Biotechnology 21.8(August 2003):885-90.Published electronically June 29,2003.摘要:http://www.nature.com/cgitaf/DynaPage.taf?file=/nbt/journal/v21/n8/abs/nbt843.Nature上的短篇新闻稿Short press release:http://www.nature.com/nbt/press_release/nbt0803.html.

    113.Richards Grayson et al.,"A BioMEMS Review:MEMS Technology for Physiologically Integrated Devices,"IEEE Proceedings 92(2004):6-21;Richards Grayson et al.,"Molecular Release from a Polymeric Microreservoir Device:Influence of Chemistry,Polymer Swelling,and Loading on Device Performance,"Journal of Biomedical Materials Research 69A.3(June 1,2004):502-12.

    114.D.Patrick ONeal et al.,"Photothermal Tumor Ablation in Mice Using Near Infrared-Ab-sorbing Nanoparticles,"Cancer Letters 209.2(June 25,2004):171-76.

    115.国际能源机构,2003年3月3日R.E.Smalley在Washington,D.C.出席总统科学技术顾问委员会时描述,"Nanotechnology,the S&TWorkforce,Energy&Prosperity"的第12页。http://www.ostp.gov/PCAST IPCAST%203-3-03%20R%20Smalley%20Slides.pdf;也可以参见http://cohesion.rice.edu/NaturalSciences/Smalley/emplibrary/PCAST%20March%203,%202003.ppt.

    116.Smalley,"Nanotechnology,the S&TWorkforce,Energy&Prosperity."

    117."FutureGen—A Sequestration and Hydrogen Research Initiative,"U.S.Department of Energy,Office of Fossil Energy,February 2003,http://www.fossil.energy.gov/programs/powersystems/futuregen/futuregen_factsheet.pdf.

    118.Drexler,Nanosystems,第428到第433页。

    119.Barnaby J.Feder,"Scientist at Work/Richard Smalley:Small Thoughts for a Global Grid,"New York Times,September 2,2003;the following link requires subscription or purchase:http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F30C17FC3D5C0C718CDDA00894DB404482.

    120.国际能源机构,Smalley"Nanotechnology,the S&T Workforce,Energy&Prosperity"报告的第12页。

    121.联合国大学美国委员会,千禧年全球挑战计划13:http://www.acunu.org/millennium/ch-13.html。

    122."Wireless Transmission in Earths Energy Future,"Environment News Service,November 19,2002,reporting on Jerome C.Glenn and Theodore J.Gordon in " 2002 State of the Future,"American Council for the United Nations University(August 2002).

    123.信息披露:作者是这家公司的顾问和投资人。

    124."NEC Unveils Methanol-Fueled Laptop,"Associated Press,June 30,2003,http://www.siliconvalley.com/mld/siliconvalley/news/6203790.htm.reporting on NEC press release,"NEC Unveils Notebook PC with Built-In Fuel Cell,"June 30,2003,http://www.nec.co.jp/press/en/0306/3002.html.

    125.Tony Smith,"Toshiba Boffins Prep Laptop Fuel Cell,"The Register,March 5,2003,http://www.theregister.co.uk/2003/03/05/toshiba_boffins_prep_laptop_fuel;Yoshiko Hara,"Toshiba Develops Matchbox-Sized Fuel Cell for Mobile Phones,"EE Times,June 24,2004,http://www.eet.com/article/showArticle.jhtml?articleId=22101804,reporting on Toshiba press release,"Toshiba Announces Worlds Smallest Direct Methanol Fuel Cell with Energy Output of 100 Milliwats,"http://www.toshiba.com/taec/press/dmfc04_222.shtml.

    126.Karen Lurie,"Hydrogen Cars,"ScienceCentral News,May 13,2004,http://www.sciencentral.com/articles/view.php3?language=english&type=article&article_id=218392247.

    127.Louise Knapp,"Booze to Fuel Gadget Batteries,"Wired News,April 2,2003,http://www.wired.com/news/gizmos/0,1452,58119,00.html,and St.Louis University press release,"Powered by Your Liquor Cabinet,New Biofuel Cell Could Replace Rechargeable Batteries,"March 24,2003,http.//www.slu.edu/readstory/newsinfo/2474,reporting on Nick Akers and Shelley Minteer,"Towards the Development of a Membrane Electrode Assembly,"presented at the American Chemical Society national meeting,Anaheim,Calif.(2003).

    128."Biofuel Cell Runs on Metabolic Energy to Power Medical Implants,"Nature Online,November 12,2002,http://www.nature.com/news/2002/021111/full/021111-1.html,reporting on N.Mano,F.Mao,and A.Heller,"A Miniature Biofuel Cell Operating in a Physiological Buffer,"Journal of the American Chemical Society 124(2002):12962-63.

    129."Power from Blood Could Lead to 'Human Batteries,'"FairfaxDigital,August 4,2003,http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2003/08/03/1059849278131.html?oneclick=true.Read more about the microbial fuel cells here:http://www.geobacter.org/research/microbial/.Matsuhiko Nishizawas BioMEMs laboratory diagrams a micro-biofuel cell:http://www.biomems.mech.tohoku.ac.jp/research_e.html.This short article describes work on an implantable,nontoxic power source that now can produce 0.2 watts:http://www.iol.co.za/index.php?se_id=l&click_id=31&art_id=qw111596760144B215.

    130.Mike Martin,"Pace-Setting Nanotubes May Power Micro-Devices,"NewsFactor,February 27,2003,http://physics.iisc.ernet.in/~asood/Pace-Setting%20Nanotubes%20May%20Power%20Micro-Devices.htm.

    131."Finally,it is possible to derive a limit to the total planetary active nanorobot mass by considering the global energy balance.Total solar insolation received at the Earths surface is~1.7510 17 watts(IEarth~1370 W/m2±0.4%at normal incidence),"Robert A.Freitas Jr.,Nanomedicine,vol.1,Basic Capabilities,section 6.5.7,"Global Hypsithermal Limit"(Georgetown,Tex.:Landes Bioscience,1999),pp.175-76,http://www.nanomedicine.com/NMI/6.5.7.htm#p1.

    132.这假设有100亿人(1010),纳米机器人的功率密度为每立方米大约107W,一个纳米机器人大小为1立方微米,每个纳米机器人的原子动力拖动大约10皮瓦(10-11W)。1016W的高温限制意味着每个人10kg的纳米机器人,或者每个人拥有1016个纳米机器人。Robert A.Freitas Jr.,Nanomedicine,vol.1,Basic Capabilities,section 6.5.7"Global Hypsithermal Limit"(Georgetown,Tex.:Landes Bioscience,1999),pp.175-76,http://www.nanomedicine.com/NMI/6.5.7.htm#p4.

    133.作为一种选择,纳米技术起初的目的是极大地节能,之所以能量回收是多余的而且不可行的,是因为要回收的是相当小的散热。2005年1月,在一封私人信件中,Robert A.Freitas Jr.写道:“Drexler的Nanosystems第396页声称能量耗散理论上能够像Ediss一样低,约为0.1兆焦耳/千克。如果假设只采用可靠的、近乎可逆的步骤将一组机械化学过程有能力传送分子原料到复杂的产品结构中:钻石的0.1兆焦耳/千克粗略的相当于室内温度最小的热噪声(e.g.,kT~4 zJ/atom at 298 K)。”

    134.Alexis De Vos,Endoreversible Thermodynamics of Solar Energy Conversion(London:Oxford University Press,1992),p.103.

    135.R.D.Schaller and V.1.Klimov,"High Efficiency Carrier Multiplication in PbSe Nanocrystals:Implications for Solar Energy Conversion,"Physical Review Letters 92.18(May 7,2004):186601.

    136.National Academies Press,commission on Physical Sciences,Mathematics,and Applications,Harnessing Light:Optical Science and Engineering for the 21st Century,(Washington,D.C.:National Academy Press,1998),p.166,http://books.nap.edu/books/0309059917/html/166.html.

    137.Matt Marshall,"World Events Spark Interest in Solar Cell Energy Startups,"Mercury News,August 15,2004,http://www.konarkatech.com/news_articles_082004/bsilicon_valley.php and http://www.nanosolar.com/cache/merc081504.htm.

    138.John Gartner,"NASA Spaces on Energy Solution,"Wired News,June 22,2004,http://www.wired.com/news/technology/0,1282,63913,00.html.See also Arthur Smith,"The Case for Solar Power from Space,"http://www.lispace.org/articles/SSPCase.html.

    139."The Space Elevator Primer,"Spaceward Foundation,http://www.elevator2010.org/site/primer.html.

    140.Kenneth Chang,"Experts Say New Desktop Fusion Claims Seem More Credible,"New York Times,March 3,2004,http://www.rpi.edu/web/News/nytlahey3.html,reporting on R.P.Taleyarkhan,"Additional Evidence of Nuclear Emissions During Acoustic Cavitation,"Physical Review E:Statistical,Nonlinear,and Soft Matter Physics 69.3,pt.2(March 2004):036109.

    141.最初Pons和Fleischman使用钯电极冷却核聚变的理论还未被废弃。热心的拥护者继续发展该项技术,美国能源部于2004年宣布,正在执行一项新的正式的关于近年来该领域的研究的审查。Toni Feder,"DOE Warms to Cold Fusion,"Physics Today(April 2004),http://www.physicstoday.org/vol-57/iss-4/p27.html.

    142.Akira Fujishima,Tata N.Rao,and Donald A.Tryk,"Titanium Dioxide Photocatalysis,"Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology C:Photochemistry Review 1(June 29,2000):1-21;Prashant V.Kamat,Rebecca Huehn,and Roxana Nicolaescu,"A 'Sense and Shoot' Approach for Photocatalytic Degradation of Organic Contaminants in Water,"Journal of Physical Chemistry B 106(January 31,2002):788-94.

    143.A.G.Panov et al.,"Photooxidation of Toluene and p-Xylene in Cation-Exchanged Zeolites X,Y,ZSM-5,and Beta:The Role of Zeolite Physicochemical Properties in Product Yield and Selectivity,"Journal of Physical Chemistry B 104(June 22,2000):5706-14.

    144.Gabor A.Somorjai and Keith McCrea,"Roadmap for Catalysis Science in the 21st Century:A Personal View of Building the Future on Past and Present Accomplishments,"Applied Catalysis A:General 222.1-2(2001):3-18,Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory number 3.LBNL-48555,http://www.cchem.berkeley.edu/~gasgrp/2000.html(publication 877).同时可参见Zhao,Lu,and Millar,"Advances in mesoporous molecular sieve MCM-41,"Industrial&Engineering Chemistry Research 35(1996):2075-90,http://cheed.nus.edu.sg/~chezxs/Zhao/publication/1996_2075.pdf.

    145.美国国家电视系统委员会(NTSC/NSET)报道,National Nanotechnology Initiative:The Initiative and Its Implementation Plan,July 2000,http://www.nano.gov/html/res/nni2.pdf.

    146.Weixian Zhang,Chuan-Bao Wang,and Hsing-Lung Lien,"Treatment of Chlorinated Organic Contaminants with Nanoscale Bimetallic Particles,"Catalysis Today 40(May 14,1988):387-95.

    147.R.Q.Long and R.T.Yang,"Carbon Nanotubes as Superior Sorbent for Dioxin Removal,"Journal of the American Chemical Society 123.9(2001):2058-59.

    148.Robert A.Freitas,Jr."Death Is an Outrage!"presented at the Fifth AlcorConference on Extreme Life Extension,Newport Beach,California,November 16,2002,http://www.rfreitas.com/Nano/DeathIsAnOutrage.htm.

    149.For example,the fifth annual BIOMEMS conference,June 2003,San Jose,http://www.knowledgepress.com/events/11201717.htm.

    150.计划的4卷系列的前两卷:Robert A.Freitas Jr.,Nanomedicine,vol.I,Basic Capabilities(Georgetown,Tex.:Landes Bioscience,1999);Nanomedicine,vol.IIA,Biocompatibility(Georgetown,Tex.:Landes Bioscience,2003);http://www.nanomedicine.com.

    151.Robert A.Freitas Jr.,"Exploratory Design in Medical Nanotechnology:A Mechanical Artificial Red Cell,"Artificial Cells,Blood Substitutes,and Immobilization Biotechnology 26(1998):411-30,http://www.foresight.org.Nanomedicine/Respirocytes.html.

    152.Robert A.Freitas Jr.,"Microbivores:Artificial Mechanical Phagocytes using Digest and Discharge Protocol,"Zyvex preprint,March 2001,http://www.rfreitas.com/Nano/Microbivores.htm;Robert A.Freitas Jr.,"Microbivores:Artificial Mechanical Phagocytes,"Foresight Update no.44,March 31,2001,pp.11-13,http://www.imm.org/Reports/Rep025.html;see also microbivore images at the Nanomedicine Art Gallery,http://www.foresight.org/Nanomedicine/Gallery/Species/Microbivores.html.

    153.Robert A.Freitas Jr.,Nanomedicine,vol.I,Basic Capabilities,section 9.4.2.5"Nanomechanisms for Natation"(Georgetown,Tex.:Landes Bioscience,1999),pp.309-12,http://www.nanomedicine.com/NMI/9.4.2.5.htm.

    154.George Whitesides,"Nanoinspiration:The Once and Future Nanomachine,"Scientific American 285.3(September 16,2001):78-83.

    155.“根据爱因斯坦定量研究布朗运动的方法,室温下1秒钟过后,流体水分子平均扩散约50微米(约为40万个分子的直径),然而1微米的纳米机器人沉浸在相同的流体中的结果,在相同的时间段内,仅约为0.7微米(只约为0.7装置的直径)。因此,布朗运动对于能动的医学纳米机器人来说,至多是带来微小的航行错误。”参见K.Eric Drexler等,Many Future Nanomachines:A Rebuttal to WhitesidesAssertion That Mechanical Molecular Assemblers Are Not Workable and Not a Concern,a Debate about Assemblers,Institute for Molecular Manufacturing,2001,http://www.imm.org/SciAmDebate2/whitesides.html.

    156.Tejal A.Desai,"MEMS-Based Technologies for Cellular Encapsulation,"American Journal of Drug Delivery 1.1(2003):3-11,abstract available at http://www.ingenta Connect.com/search/expand?pub=infobike://adis/add/2003/00000001/00000001/art00001.

    157.引自Douglas Hofstadter,Gödel,Escher,Bach:An Eternal Golden Braid(New York:Basic Books,1979)。

    158.作者经营一家名为FATKAT(Financial Accelerating Transactions by Kurzweil Adaptive Technologies)的公司,该公司将可计算的模式识别技术应用于金融数据并进行证券市场的决策。http://www.FatKat.com.

    159.参见第2章关于计算机存储和电子设备在性价比方面的改进。

    160.逃逸AI是指一个场景,正如Max More所描述的:“超级智能机在开始的时候会给人们带来益处,但很快便会将人类甩在身后。”“我们要拥抱未来,而不是放弃。”网址为http://www.KurzweilAI.net/articles/art0106.html?printable=1。还可见Damien Broderick关于“种子AI”的描述:“自我改进的种子AI在一个限制的机器基质中的运行效率很低。只要在一点具备了自我改进的能力,那么在一些方面将会突破结构性的平静,从而改进自身的硬件设计,甚至构建硬件(如果允许在加工厂中控制工具)。”Damien Broderick,"Tearing Toward the Spike,"发表于"Australia at the Crossroads?Scenarios and Strategies for the Future"(2000年4月31到5月2日),由KurzweilAI.net 2001年5月7日,出版http://www.KurzweilAI.net/meme/frame.html?main=/articles/art0173.html。

    161.David Talbot,"Lord of the Robots,"Technology Review(April 2002).

    162.Heather Havenstein写道:“膨胀的观念大量产生于科幻小说中,用于描述人类与机器的聚合将玷污20世纪80年代的AI,因为AI被认为不具备那种潜力。”Heather Havenstein,"Springcomes to AI Winter:A Thousand Applications Bloom in Medicine,Customer Service,Education and Manufacturing,"Computerworld,February 14,2005,http://www.computerworld.com/softwaretopics/software/story/0,10801,99691,00.html。这幅失去光泽的图像导致了“AI冬天”,定义为“该词由Richard Gabriel创造,用于描述在20时间80年代AI的繁荣之后,(大约在1990~1994年)对于AI的语言Lisp和AI本身乐观高潮的崩溃,”Duane Rettig写道“…20世纪80年代早期很多公司依靠AI的繁荣,那时大公司们将数十亿美元投入到AI领域,并大肆宣传会思考的机器将在10年内出现。但是现实与宣传不相符时,AI的高潮崩溃了,Lisp随之崩溃,因为该语言与AI紧密相关。我们特指其为AI冬天。”引用自Duane Rettig的"AI Winter",http://c2.com/cgi/wiki?AiWinter。

    163.The General Problem Solver(GPS)计算机程序编写于1957年,它能够通过规则解决问题,这些规则可以将一个问题的目标化简为若干个子目标,然后检查完成一个具体的子目标是否能够使GPS接近于解决整体目标。在20世纪60年代早期,Thomas Evan编写过ANAL-OGY,它是一个能够通过A:B:C:?的形式来解决几何图形相似性的程序,该问题还用于IQ测试和学院的入学考试。"Boicho Kokinov和Robert M.French,"Computational Models of Analogy-Making,"in L.Nadel,ed.,Encyclopedia of Cognitive Science,vol.1(London:Nature Publishing Group,2003),pp.113-18.See also A.Newell,J.C.Shaw,and H.A.Simon,”Report on a General Problem-Solving Program,"Proceedings of the International Conference on Information Processing(Paris:UNESCO House,1959),pp.256-64;Thomas Evans,"A Heuristic Program to Solve Geometric-Analogy Problems,in M.Minsky,ed.,Semantic Information Processing(Cambridge,Mass.:MIT Press,1968).

    164.Sir Arthur Conan Doyle,"The RedHeaded League,"1890,available at http://www.eastoftheweb.com/shortstories/UBooks/RedHead.shtml.

    165.V.Yu et al.,Antimicrobial Selection by a Computer:A Blinded Evaluation by Infectious Diseases Experts,JAMA 242.12(1979):1279-82.

    166.Gary H.Anthes,"Computerizing Common Sense,"Computerworld,April 8,2002,http://www.computerworld.com/news/2002/story/0,11280,69881,00.html.

    167.Kristen Philipkoski,"Now Heres a Really Big Idea,"Wired News,November 25,2002,http://www.wired.com/news/technology/0,1282,56374,00.html,Darryl Macer,"The Next Challenge Is to Map the Human Mind,"Nature 420(November 14,2002):121;关于该项目的描述可见http://www.biol.tsukuba.ac.jp/~macer/index.html.

    168.Thomas Bayes,"An Essay Towards Solving a Problem in the Doctrine of Chances",出版于1763.他于1761年去世。

    169.SpamBayes垃圾过滤,http://spambayes.sourceforge.net.

    170.Lawrence R.Rabiner,"A Tutorial on Hidden Markov Models and Selected Applications in Speech Recognition,"Proceedings of the IEEE 77(1989):257-86.For a mathematical treatment of Markov models,http://jedlik.phy.bme.hu/~gerjanos/HMM/node2.html.

    171.Kurzweil Applied Intelligence(KAI),由作者成立于1982,1997年以1亿美元出售,现在是ScanSoft的一部分(以前称为Kurzweil Computer Products,是作者的第一家公司,早先在1980年出售给Xerox公司),现在是一家上市公司。KAI是1987年在商业上首次引入了大词汇量的语音识别系统(Kurzweil Voice Report,共有10万词汇量)。

    172.以下是关于神经网络算法的基本框架。很多变量是可能的,系统的设计者需要提供确定的临界参数和方法,以下是相关细节。

    创建一个问题的神经网络解决方案涉及以下步骤:

    ●定义输入。

    ●定义神经网络的拓扑结构(例如神经元的层次和神经元间的连接)。

    ●根据问题的实例训练神经网络。

    ●运行经过训练的神经网络,以解决该问题的新例子。

    ●将你的神经网络在全局公开。

    这些步骤(除最后一步)将在下文详细论述:

    问题输入

    输入神经网络的问题由一系列的数字构成。该输入可以是:

    ●在一个可视化的模式识别系统中,一个数字二维矩阵代表一副图像的像素;

    ●在一个听觉(如语音)识别系统中,一个数字二维矩阵代表声音,其中第一维度代表声音的参数(如频率分量),第二维代表时间上不同的点;

    ●在一个任意的模式识别系统中,用一个n维的数字矩阵表达输入模式。定义拓扑结构建立神经网络,每个神经元的结构构成如下:

    ●在多输入中,每个输入“连接”到另一个神经元的输出或者输入的一个数字。

    ●通常,一个单独的输出(连接到另一个神经元的输入,这个神经元通常在较高的层次上),或者连接到最终的输出。

    建立第一层神经元

    ●在第一个层次上,创建N0个神经元。对于每个神经元,“连接”神经元多输入中的每一个到问题输入中的“点”(如数字)。这些连接可以随机地选择或者使用进化算法(见下文)。

    ●为每个创建的连接分配一个初始的“突触强度”。这些权重在开始时可以完全一致,也可以随机分配,还可以通过一种方式制定(见下文)。

    建立额外的神经元层

    建立总体的M层神经元。为每一层建立神经元。

    对层次i:

    ●在该层次上创建Ni个神经元。对于每个神经元,“连接”神经元多个输入中的每一项到i-1层神经元的输出(见下文的变量)。

    ●为每个神经元赋予一个初始的“突触强度”。这些权重在开始时可以完全一致,也可以随机分配,还可以通过一种方式制定(见下文)。

    ●M层神经元的输出就是神经网络的输出(见下文的变量)。

    识别实验

    每个神经元是如何工作的

    一旦建立神经元,每个识别实验需要完成以下工作:

    ●每个输入到神经元的权重由其他神经元(或者初始输入)输出的乘积得到。这个神经元的输入将与连接的突触强度相关联。

    ●所有的神经元输入的权重累加求和。

    ●如果总和大于这个神经元的发射阈值,那么该神经元将会发射,其输出值为1。否则它的输出为0(见下文的变量)。

    对每个识别实现需要完成以下工作:

    对于每个层次(从初始层到M层):

    对于该层次上的每个神经元:

    ●对它的输入求和(每个权值输入=其他神经元的输出(或初始的输入),该神经元的输入与连接相关联的突触强度的乘积)。

    ●如果输入权重之和大于这个神经元的发射阈值,那么该神经元将会发射,该神经元其输出值为1。否则它的输出为0。

    训练神经网络

    ●在样本问题上重复运行识别实验。

    ●在每次实验后,调整所有内部神经元连接的突触强度,以改进本次实验神经网络的性能(见下文关于如何实行这个策略的讨论)。

    ●持续训练神经网络直到其准确性不再增加(如达到一条渐近线)。关键设计决策在以上简单的模式下,神经网络算法的设计者需要在初始阶段决定以下内容:

    ●输入的数字表示什么。

    ●神经元的层数。

    ●每一层上的神经元个数。(每一层上的神经元数量不一定都要相同。)

    ●每一层中每个神经元的输入数量。这个输入数量(如内部的神经元连接)可以彼此不同。

    ●实际的“线路”(如连接)。对于每一层上的每个神经元,这构成了每个神经元的列表,其输出构成了这个神经元输入。这代表了一个关键的设计领域。可以通过以下方法完成该任务:

    1)随机连接神经网络;

    2)通过进化算法(见下文)来确定一个优化的连接;

    3)根据系统设计者的判断来确定连接;

    ●每个连接初始的突触强度(如权重)。有很多方法可以完成这个工作:

    1)为所有连接设定相同的突触强度;

    2)为不同的连接设定随机不同的突触强度;

    3)通过进化算法确定最优的初始值;

    4)根据系统设计者的最优判断来决定初始值。

    ●每个神经元的激发阈值

    ●输出。输出可以是:

    1)M层神经的输出;

    2)一个单独的输出神经元的输出,输入时M层神经元的输出;

    3)M层所有神经元的输出的一个功能;

    4)在多层次上神经元输出的另一个功能。

    ●在神经网络的训练阶段,所有连接的突触强度是如何调整的。这是一个关键的设计决策,它涉及大量研究和讨论的主题。有很多合理的方法完成这个工作:

    1)对于每个识别实验,每个突触强度的增加或减少一个固定的量(通常很小),以便于神经网络的输出与正确答案接近。一种方法是尝试增加和减少,然后看哪种结果与所期望更相符。这是非常耗时的,其他方法用于局部决策每个突触强度是增加还是减少。

    2)在每次识别实验后,其他统计方法用于修改突触强度,使得实验中神经网络的性能更接近于正确答案。

    请注意,即便训练实验并不完全正确,但是神经网络的训练依然有效。这允许使用现实世界中的训练数据,而这些数据有可能存在错误。基于神经网络识别系统成功的关键在于大量用于训练的数据。通常需要一个合适的量值以获取满意的结果。就好像学生一样,一个神经网络花在学习课程上的时间是决定其性能的一个关键因素。

    变量

    以上的很多变量都是柔性的:

    ●有很多决定拓扑结构的方法。特别是内部的神经连接既能够随机设置,又能够应用进化算法。

    ●有一些不同方法设定突触强度的初值。

    ●一层上的神经元输入并不一定来自i-1层的输出,还可以来自其他较低的层次或其他层次。

    ●有很多不同方法决定最终的输出。

    ●以上描述的方法导致了“全或无”(1或0)的激活,这是非线性的。还有其他非线性的功能可以使用。通常一个功能以快速而非渐进的方式由0变为1。同样,输出的数字还可以是0和1以外的其他数字。

    ●在训练描述关键设计的决策期间,可以使用不同方法调节突出强度。

    以上模式描述了一种“同步”的神经网络,其中每个识别实验通过计算每个层次的输出实施,始于一个层次并贯穿到M层。在一个真实的并行系统中,每个神经元的操作都是独立于其他操作的,神经元操作可以是“异步的”(独立的)。在一个异步策略中,每个神经元不断地扫描其输入,当权重输入超过阈值时发射(或当它的功能被指定)。

    173.见第4章关于大脑逆向工程的详细讨论。作为前进的一个实例,S.J.Thorpe写道:“我们才刚刚开始从事这个长期的项目,这个项目旨在逆向工程灵长类动物的视觉系统。目前我们只探索了一些简单的结构,只涉及前馈结构和较少数量的层次……在未来的几年里,我们将努力尽可能多地吸收灵长类和人类视觉系统大的计算技巧。更简要地说,它似乎才满足强化的神经元策略,开发一个成熟的可以实时模拟大量神经网络系统将是非常有可能的。”Proceedings of the IEEE 2000 International Symposium on Circuits and Systems IV(IEEE Press),pp.405-8,http://www.sccn.ucsd.edu/~arno/mypapers/thorpe.pdf。

    174.T.Schoenauer等写道:“在过去的几年里,人们设计了多用多样的人工神经网络硬件……现在我们可以在更宽广的范围内选择神经网络的硬件。结构策略的设计是不同的,类神经芯片、加速器板,以及多板神经计算机,还有关注系统的设计,如ANN算法和系统的多功能性……数字神经元硬件可以根据以下方式划分:系统结构、并行程度、每个处理器典型神经网络的划分、内部处理器通信网络和数值表示。”Proc.Neuronale Netze in der Anwendung——Neural Networks in Applications NN98,Magdeburg,invited paper(February 1998):101-6,http://bwrc.eecs.berkeley.edu/People/kcamera/neural/papers/schoenauer98digital.pdf.另见Yihua Liao,"Neural Networks in Hardware:A Survey"(2001),http://ailab.das.ucdavis.edu/~yihua/research/NNhardware.pdf.

    175.以下是基因(进化)算法的基本模式。很多变量是合理的,并且系统的设计需要提供确定的临界参数和方法,细节如下。

    计算算法

    创建N个解决方案的“创作物”。每个创作物如下:

    ●一段基因代码:一个数字序列,可以用于描述一个问题的解决方案。数字可以表示临界的册数、解决方案的步骤、规则等。

    每一代进化都会做以下工作:

    ●以下为每个解决方案创造物所做的工作:

    1)将解决方案创造物(由基因代码表示)应用于问题或模拟的环境。

    2)为方案打分。

    ●选择L个分数最高的解决方案的创造物用于下一代实验。

    ●去除其他(N-L)个解决方案创造物。

    ●根据L个解决方案,创造(N-L)个新的解决方案,方法如下:

    1)制造L个创造物的副本。为每个副本引入随机变量;

    2)通过融合部分基因代码(使用“有性”繁殖或其他染色体合成蛋白质的方法),从L个创造物中创造额外的解决方案创造物;

    3)将1)和2)合并。

    ●确定能否持续进化:

    改进=(这一代进化的最高评分)-(前一代进化的最高评分)。

    If改进<改进阈值,then完成。

    ●具有最高评分的解决方案创造物来源于进化的最后一代,它具有最优的解决方案。将基因代码定义的解决方案应用于问题中。

    关键设计决策

    在以上的简单模式中,设计者需要确定一个开端:

    ●关键参数: