L
●该技能阈值
●基因代码中的数字表示含义,以及如何由基因代码计算获得解决方案的方法。
●确定第一代N个解决方案创造物的方法。通常一个解决方案只需要一个“合理”的尝试。如果这些第一代的解决方案偏离较远,那么评测算法将很难收敛以得到好的解决方案。通常情况下创造一个初始的解决方案创造物应多一些变化。这将帮助进化过程仅仅找到“局部”最优解。
●如何给解决方案评分。
●如何复制继续存在的解决方案。
变量
以上的很多变量都是可行的。例如:
●每一代不需要固定数量的解决方案生物(L)。幸存规则能够允许可变数量的可继续生存的解决方案。
●不要求每一代(N-L)创造的新的解决方案生物的数量是一致的。生产规则独立于总体数量。生产与幸存的解决方案相关,从而允许最适合的解决方案创造物得到最多的繁殖。
●关于能否继续进化的决策可以是变化的。不仅考虑到源于最近一代中最高评分的解决方案创造物。还需考虑除最近两代以外的趋势。
176.Sam Williams,"When Machines Breed,"August 12,2004,http://www.salon.com/tech/feature/2004/08/12/evolvable_hardware/index_np.html.
177.以下是一个递归搜索的一个基础模式(算法描述),该模式具有很多变量,系统的设计者需要提供给确定的临界参数和方法,以下是相关细节。
递归算法
定义一个函数(程序)"Pick Best Next Step"。该函数返回值为"SUCCESS"(我们已经解决了该问题)或者"FAILURE"(我们无法解决该问题)。如果返回的值为SUCCESS,那么该函数还返回解决该问题的步骤序列。
PICK BESTNEXT STEP函数根据以下步骤完成:
●决定程序能否在该点继续递归。有三种方式处理逃逸决策。
首先,判定问题现在是否已经解决。既然调用Pick Best Next Step的程序很有可能就是它本身,那么我们可能已经具有了满意的解决方案。实例如下:
1)在一个游戏(例如象棋)的上下文中,最后一步可以使我们获胜(如将死)。
2)在解决数学定理的上下文中,最后一步证明了该定理。
3)在艺术程序的上下文中(例如计算机诗人或作曲家),最后一步是为下一个字或音调匹配目标。
如果问题得到满意的解答,那么程序返回的值为SUCCESS,以及返回成功解决该问题的步骤序列。
如果这一问题不能解决,那么就无法确定解决方案是否有效。例如:
1)在游戏中(例如国际象棋),这样的移动将使我们失败(被对方将死)。
2)在解决数学定理的过程中,这一步将违反定理。
3)在文学创作的过程中,这一步将妨害下一个词或下一段文字所表达的含义。
如果在该方面的解决方案被认为是不成功的,那么程序将返回"FAILURE"。
●如果问题既没有解决,在递归扩展中又没有成功,需要决定是否将放弃这种扩展。这是设计的一个重要方面,需要考虑计算机所需时间总量的限制。实例如下:
1)在游戏(如象棋)的上下文中,移动将使我们的侧面“提前”或“退后”。这一决定可能并不直白,同时也是最主要的设计决策。尽管如此,简单的策略(例如对零碎的值求和)将提供好的结果。如果程序决定了我们的侧面是充分提前的,那么我们的侧面将会胜出(值为"SUCCESS")。如果程序决定了我们的侧面是充分落后的,那么Pick Best Next Step程序将会以相似的方式返回一个我们的侧面失败的结论(值为"FAILURE")。
2)在解决数学定理的上下文中,这一步涉及证据中的步骤序列是否不可能产生一个证据。如果是这样,那么这条路将被放弃,并且Pick Best Next Step将以相似的方式返回一个判断,以断定这一步是否违反了定理(值为"FAILURE")。没有“柔性”的等价成功。当我们切实解决问题时,才能够返回"SUCCESS"。这便是数学的本质。
3)在艺术化的程序的上下文中(如计算机诗人或作曲家),该步骤涉及决定该序列(如诗中的词和歌中的音调)是否不能满足下一步的目标。如果无法满足则放弃路径,Pick Best Next Step以相似的方式返回一个判断,这一步骤妨碍了下一步的目标(值为"FAILURE")。
●如果Pick Best Next Step没有返回值(因为程序既没有成功,也没有失败,没有做出该路径是否该抛弃的一个判断),那么我们还不能从递归扩展中结束。在这种情况下,我们会生成一个关于下一步的清单。以下是关于该问题的一个准确阐述:
1)在一个游戏(如象棋)的上下文中,涉及在当前的棋盘状态下为“我们的”侧面生成所有可能的移动。这涉及直接的游戏规则的编写。
2)在为数学定理找证据的上下文中,涉及可能的公理或之前证明过的定理,它们均可应用于该解决方案中。
3)在一个控制论艺术程序的上下文中,可能涉及使用词语/音符/路线来分割。
对于下一步的每一种可能:
1)创造假设情况,该步骤如能顺利实施则该情况就是存在的。在一个游戏中,这意味着期盼的假设状态。在数学证明中,这意味着增加了证明的步骤(如公理)。在艺术程序中,这意味着增加了词语/音符/路线的分割。
2)现在调用Pick Best Next Step来检测假设的情形。当然这是递归的结果,因为程序调用了自身。
3)如果调用Pick Best Next Step的返回结果是"SUCCESS",那么Pick Best Next Step的返回值也是"SUCCESS"。否则考虑下一个的可能步骤。
如果所有可能的下一步均没有找到调用Pick Best Next Step的返回值为"SUCCESS",那么调用Pick Best Next Step函数的返回值为"FAILURE"。
Pick Best Next Step的结束
如果初始调用Pick Best Next Step函数返回值为"SUCCESS",那么它还将返回一个正确的步骤序列:
1)在游戏的上下文中,序列的第一步是你应当做出的下一个移动。
2)在数学证明的上下文中,全部的序列步骤便是证据。
3)在一个控制论艺术程序的上下文中,步骤序列就是你的作品。
如果初始调用Pick Best Next Step返回值为"FAILURE",那么你需要返回画板。
关键设计决策
在以上的简单模式中,递归算法的设计者需要判断以下内容:
●递归算法的关键是判断Pick Best Next Step合适放弃递归扩张。当程序成功(例如象棋中的将死,或数学中的必要条件,或是组合问题)或失败时这将是简单的。当状态并非清晰地成功或失败时,情况将变得很困难。在完整定义输出之前放弃查询是很有必要的,因为程序有可能运行了几十亿年(或者至少你的计算机资源将耗尽)。
●递归算法其他的主要需求是直接编辑问题。在象棋游戏中这很容易。但是在其他情况中,问题的清晰定义通常并不容易。
178.见Kurzweil CyberArt,http://www.KurzweilCyberArt.com。关于Ray Kurzweils Cybernetic Poet的进一步描述,并且可以下载这个程序的免费版本。见美国专利No.6647 395,"Poet Personalities,"发明者:Ray Kurzweil and John Keklak。摘要:“创造一个诗人的方法,包括读诗,每首诗包括文本,生成分析模型,每个分析模型代表一首诗并在个性化的数据结构中存储分析模型。个性化的数据结构进一步包含权重,每个权重与一个分析模型关联。权重包含整数值。”
179.Ben Goertzel:The Structure of Intelligence(New York:Springer-Verlag,1993);The Evolving Mind(Gordon and Breach,1993);Chaotic Logic(Plenum,1994);From Complexity to Creativity(Plenum,1997).For a link to Ben Goertzels books and essays,see http://www.goertzel.orglwork.html.
180.KurzweilAI.net(http://www.KurzweilAI.net)提供了100名大思想家的百余篇文章,并且描述了“加速智能”的特征。该网站提供了涉及本书内容的免费的日通信或周通信,可在首页通过输入你的电子邮件地址(不会将你的邮件地址分享给他人)来订阅。
181.John Gosney,Business Communications Company,Artificial Intelligence:Burgeoning Applications in Industry,June 2003,http://www.bccresearch.com/comm/G275.html.
182.Kathleen Melymuka,"Good Morning,Dave……,"Computerworld;November 11,2002,http://www.computerworld.com/industrytopics/defense/story/0,10801,75728,00.html.
183.JTRS Technology Awareness Bulletin,August 2004,http://jtrs.army.mil/sections/technicalin-formation/fset_technical.html?tech_aware_2004-8.
184.Otis Port,Michael Arndt,and John Carey,"Smart Tools,"Spring 2003,http://www.businessweek.com/bw50/content/mar2003/a3826072.htm.
185.Wade Roush,"Immobots Take Control:From Photo Copiers to Space Probes,Machines Injected with Robotic Self-Awareness Are Reliable Problem Solvers,"Technology Review(December 2002-January 2003),http://www.occm.de/roush1202.pdf.
186.Jason Lohn quoted in NASA news release"NASA 'Evolutionary' Software Automatically Designs Antenna,"http://www.nasa.gov/lb/centers/ames/news/releases/2004/04_55AR.html.
187.Robert Roy Britt,"Automatic Astronomy:New Robotic Teles Copes See and Think,"June 4,2003,http://www.space.com/businesstechnology/technology/automated_astronomy_030604.html.
188.H.Keith Melton,"Spies in the Digital Age,"http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/cold.war/experience/spies/melton.essay.
189.“United Therapeutics(UT)是一家生物科技公司,为生命危急情况提供慢性治疗,治疗领域包括:心血管、肿瘤以及传染病”(http://www.unither.com).Kurzweil Technologies与UT合作开发基于模式识别分析系统,如"Holter"监视装置(24小时记录)或"Event"监视装置(30天或30天以上记录)。
190.Kristen Philipkoski,"A Map That Maps Gene Functions,"Wired News,May 28,2002,http://www.wired.com/news/medtech/0,1286,52723,00.html.
191.Jennifer Ouellette,"Bioinformatics Moves into the Mainstream,"The Industrial Physicist(October-November 2003),http://www.sciencemasters.com/bioinformatics.pdf.
192.Port,Arndt,and Carey,"Smart Tools."
193."Protein Patterns in Blood May Predict Prostate Cancer Diagnosis,"National Cancer Institute,October 15,2002,http://www.nci.nih.gov/newscenter/ProstateProteomics,reporting on Emanuel F.Petricoin et al.,"Serum Proteomic Patterns for Detection of Prostate Cancer,"Journal of the National Cancer Institute 94(2002):1576-78.
194.Charlene Laino,"New Blood Test Spots Cancer,"December 13,2002,http://my.webmd.com/content/Article/56/65831.htm;Emanuel F.Petricoin Ⅲ et al.,"Use of Proteomic Patterns in Serum to Identify Ovarian Cancer,"Lancet 359.9306(February 16,2002):572-77.
195.For information of TriPaths FocalPoint,see"Make a Diagnosis,"Wired,October 2003,http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/10.03/everywhere.html?pg=5.Mark Hagland,"DoctorsOrders,"January 2003,http://www.healthcareinformatics.com/issues/2003/01_03/cpoe.htm.
196.Ross D.King et al.,"Functional Genomic Hypothesis Generation and Experimentation by a Robot Scientist,"Nature 427(January 15,2004):247-52.
197.Port,Arndt,and Carey,"Smart Tools."
198."Future Route Releases AI-Based Fraud Detection Product,"August 18,2004,http://www.finextra.com/fullstory.asp?id=12365.
199.John Hackett,"Computers Are Learning the Business,"CollectionsWorld,April 24,2001,http://www.credit Collectionsworld.com/news/042401_2.htm.
200."Innovative Use of Artificial Intelligence,Monitoring NASDAQ for Potential Insider Trading and Fraud,"AAAI press release,July 30,2003,http://www.aaai.org/Pressroom/Releases/release-03-0730.html.
201."Adaptive Learning,Fly the Brainy Skies,"Wired News,March 2002,http://www.wired.com/wired/rchive/10.03/everywhere.html?pg=2.
202."Introduction to Artificial Intelligence,"EL 629,Maxwell Air Force Base,Air University Library course,http://www.au.af.mil/au/aul/school/acsc/ai02.htm.Sam Williams,"Computer,Heal Thyself,"Salon.com,July 12,2004,http://www.salon.com/tech/feature/2004/07/12/self_healing_computing/index_np.html.
203.参见http://www.Seegrid.com。信息披露:作者是Seegrid的投资者和董事会的理事。
204.No Hands Across America Web site,http://cart.frc.ri.cmu.edu/users/hpm/project.archive/reference.file/nhaa.html,and"Carnegie Mellon Researchers Will Prove Autonomous Driving Technologies During a 3,000 Mile,Hands-off-the-Wheel Trip from Pittsburgh to San Diego,"Carnegie Mellon press release,http://www-2.cs.cmu.edu/afs/cs/user/tjochem/www/nhaa/official_press_release.html;Robert J.Derocher,"Almost Human,"September 2001,http://www.insightmag.com/insight/01/09/col-2-pt-1-ClickCulture.htm.
205."Search and Rescue Robots,"Associated Press,September 3,2004,http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2004/09/02/1093939058792.html?oneclick=true.
206."From Factoids to Facts,"Economist,August 26,2004,http://www.economist.com/science/displayStory.cfm?story_id=3127462.
207.Joe McCool,"Voice Recognition,It Pays to Talk,"May 2003,http://www.bcs.org/BCS/Products/Publications/JournalsAndMagazines/ComputerBulletin/OnlineArchive/may03/voicere Cognition.htm.
208.John Gartner,"Finally a Car That Talks Back,"Wired News,September 2,2004,http://www.wired.com/news/autotech/0,2554,64809,00.html?tw=wn_14techhead.
209."Computer Language Translation System Romances the Rosetta Stone,"Information SciencesInstitute,USC School of Engineering(July 24,2003),http://www.usc.edu/isinews/stories/102.html.
210.Torsten Reil quoted in Steven Johnson,"Darwin in a Box,"Discover 24.8(August 2003),http://www.discover.com/issues/aug-03/departments/feattech/.
211."Let Software Catch the Game for You,"July 3,2004,http://www.newscientist.com/news/news.jsp?id=ns99996097.
212.Michelle Delio,"Breeding Race Cars to Win,"Wired News,June 18,2004,http://www.wired.com/news/autotech/0,2554,63900,00.html.
213.Marvin Minsky,The Society of Mind(New York:Simon&Schuster,1988).
214.Hans Moravec,"When Will Computer Hardware Match the Human Brain?"Journal of Evolution and Technology 1(1998).
215.Ray Kurzweil,The Age of Spiritual Machines(New York:Viking,1999),p.156.
216.请见第2章的注释22和23,关于International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors。
217."The First Turing Test,"http://www.loebner.net/Prizef/loebnerprize.html.
218.Douglas R.Hofstadter,"A Coffeehouse Conversation on the Turing Test,"May 1981,included in Ray Kurzweil,The Age of Intelligent Machines(Cambridge,Mass.:MIT Press,1990),pp.80-102,http://www.KurzweilAI.net/meme/frame.html?main=/articles/art0318.html.
219.Ray Kurzweil,"Why I Think I Will Win,"and Mitch Kapor,"Why I Think I Will Win,"规则如下:
http://www.KurzweilAI.net/meme/frame.html?main=/articles/art0373.html;Kapor:
http://www.KurzweilAI.net/meme/frame.html?main=/articles/art0412.html;Kurzweil:
http://www.KurzweilAI.net/meme/frame.html?main=/articles/art0374.html;Kurzweilfinal word:
http://www.KurzweilAI.net/meme/frame.html?main=/articles/art0413.html.
220.Edward A.Feigenbaum,"Some Challenges and Grand Challenges for Computational Intelligence,"Journal of the Association for Computing Machinery 50(January 2003):32-40.
221.根据真核生物进化的连续共生理论,线粒体的祖先(细胞中的一种结构体,用于产生能量,其遗传代码由人类的13个基因构成)是独立的细菌(不是细胞的一部分),与现在的弹跳菌非常相似。“连续共生理论”请见http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Serial%20endosymbiosis%20theory。
第6章 影响的盛装
1.Donovan,"Season of the Witch,"Sunshine Superman(1966).
2.农业劳动力的减少有很多原因,包括机械化减少了人力和物力,在第二次世界大战期间,城市中创造了很多经济机会,密集农业技术的发展需要较少的土地,根据U.S.Department of Agriculture和National Agricultural Statistics Service发布的Trends in U.S.Agriculture。http://www.usda.gov/nass/pubs/trends/farmpopulation.htm。计算机辅助生产、实时生产(降低存货)和外包生产减少了花销和工厂的就业职位。请见U.S.Department of Labor,Futurework:Trends and Challenges of Work in the 21st Century,http://www.dol.gov/asp/programs/history/herman/reports/futurework/report.htm.
3.例子请见Natasha Vita-More,"The New[Human]Genre Primo[First]Posthuman,"论文发表于Ciber@RT Conference,Bilbao,Spain,April 2004,http://www.natasha.cc/paper.htm。
4.Rashid Bashir在2004作了如下总结:
在微技术和纳米技术的治疗应用方面取得了巨大的进步,一些具体的实例包括:1)基于硅材料的可移植的设备,该设备可以用电力驱动打开孔口,并将预先填入的药物通过孔口释放;2)硅设备可以利用电驱动的聚合物作为阀和肌肉以释放预先填入的药物;3)基于硅和微胶囊的多孔膜以释放胰岛素;4)所有的聚合物(或水凝胶)粒子可以释放药物,然后使其在特定的环境中显露,环境包括PH的改变、药品的释放;5)金属纳米粒子被识别蛋白所覆盖,其上的粒子可以由外部的光能加热,并破坏有害的细胞和组织。
R.Bashir,"BioMEMS:State-of-the-Art in Detection,Opportunities and Prospects,"Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews 56.11(September 22,2004):1565-86。请见以下网址:https://engineering.purdue.edu/LIB-NA/pdf/publications/BioMEMS%20review%20ADDR%20finl.pdf。请见Richard Grayson等,"A BioMEMS Review:MEMS Technology for Physiologically Integrated Devices,"IEEE Proceedings 92(2004):6-21。
5.关于International Society for BioMEMS and Biomedical Nanotechnology的活动,请见http://www.bme.ohio-state.edu/isb.BioMEMS conferences are also listed on the SPIE Web site,http://www.spie.org/Conferences。
6.研究人员使用黄金纳米颗粒监测糖尿病患者的血糖。Y.Xiao et al.,"Plugging into Enzymes':Nanowiring of Redox Enzymes by a Gold Nanoparticle,"Science 299.5614(March 21,2003):1877-81.Also see T.A.Desai et al.,"Abstract Nanoporous Microsystems for Islet Cell Replacement,"Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews 56.11(September 22,2004):1661-73.
7.A.Grayson,et al.,"Multipulse Drug Delivery from a Resorbable Polymeric Microchip Device,"Nature Materials 2(2003):767-72.
8.Q.Bai and K.D.Wise,"Single-Unit Neural Recording with Active Microelectrode Arrays,"IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering 48.8(August 2001):911-20.有关Wise在J.DeGaspari工作的
讨论请见"Tiny,Tuned,and Unattached,"Mechanical Engineering(July 2001),http://www.memagazine.org/backissues/july01/features/tinytune/tinytune.html;K.D.Wise,"Thecoming Revolution in Wireless Integrated MicroSystems,"Digest International Sensor Conference 2001(Invited Plenary),Seoul,October 2001.Online version(January 13,2004):http://www.stanford.edu/class/ee392s/Stanford392S-kw.pdf.
9."Microbots' Hunt Down Disease,"BBC News,June 13,2001,http://news.bbc.co.uk/l/hi/health/1386440.stm.基于圆柱磁体的微机器请见K.Ishiyama,M.Sendoh,and K.I.Arai,"Magnetic Micromachines for Medical Applications,"Journal of Magnetism and Magnetic Materials 242-45,part 1(April 2002):41-46.
10.请见Sandia National Laboratories press release,Pac-Man-Like Microstructure Interacts with Red Blood Cells,August 15,2001,http://www.sandia.gov/medialNewsRel/NR2001/gobbler.htm.关于回应工业贸易的文章请见D.Wilson,"Microteeth Have a Big Bite,"August 17,2001,http://www.e4engineering.com/item.asp?ch=e4_home&type=Features&id=42543.
11.参见Freitas的书Nanomedicine,vol.1,Basic Capabilities(Georgetown,Tex.:Landes Bioscience,1999),以及Nanomedicine,vol.2A,Biocompatibility(Georgetown,Tex.:Landes Bioscience,2003),两者可在以下网址找到:http://www.nanomedicine.com。请见Foresight Institute关于“纳米药物”的页面,由Robert Freitas撰写,该文章罗列了当前的科技工作(http://www.foresight.org/Nanomedicine/index.html#MedNanoBots)。
12.Robert A.Freitas Jr.,"Exploratory Design in Medical Nanotechnology:A Mechanical Artificial Red Cell,"Artificial Cells,Blood Substitutes,and Immobilization Biotechnology 26(1998):41130,http://www.foresight.org/Nanomedicine/Respirocytes.html.
13.Robert A.Freitas Jr.,"Clottocytes:Artificial Mechanical Platelets,"Foresight Update no.41,June 30,2000,pp.911,http://www.imm.org/Reports/Rep018.html.
14.Robert A.Freitas Jr.,"Microbivores:Artificial Mechanical Phagocytes,"Foresight Update no.44,March 31,2001,pp.1113,http://www.imm.org/Reports/Rep025.html or http://www.KurzweilAI.net/meme/frame.html?main==/articles/art0453.html.
15.Robert A.Freitas Jr.,"The Vasculoid Personal Appliance,"Foresight Update no.48,March 31,2002,pp.10-12,http://www.imm.org/Reports/Rep031.html;全文请见:Robert A.Freitas Jr.and Christopher J.Phoenix,"Vasculoid:A Personal Nanomedical Appliance to Replace Human Blood,"Journal of Evolution and Technology 11(April 2002),http://www.jetpress.org/volume11/vasculoid.html.
16.Carlo Montemagno,George Bachand,"Constructing Nanomechanical Devices Powered by Biomolecular Motors,"Nanotechnology 10(September 1999):225-31;"Biofuel Cell Runs on Metabolic Energy to Power Medical Implants,"Nature online,Nov.12,2002,http://www.nature.com/news/2002/021111/full/021111-1.html,reporting on N.Mano,F.Mao,and A.Heller,"A Miniature Biofuel Cell Operating in a Physiological Buffer,"Journal of the American Chemical Society 124(2002):12962-63;Carlo Montemagno et al.,"Self-Assembled Microdevices Driven by Muscle,"Nature Materials 4.2(February 2005):180-84,published electronically(January 16,2005).
17.请从Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory的网站(http://www.llnl.gov)获得有关创新精神的更新信息。Medtronic MiniMed的网址如下:http://www.minimed.com/corpinfo/index.shtml。
18.大脑对大脑直接的交流看起来更像是好莱坞电影的情节,而非政府报告,但这确实是来自U.S.National Science Foundation and Department of Commerce的报告。"G.Brumfiel,"Futurists Predict Body Swaps for Planet Hops,Nature 418(July 25,2002):359。
深入刺激人脑(通过来自嵌入式电子的电流影响人脑的功能)是美国食品和药物管理局(FDA)允许的治疗帕金森病和测试神经紊乱的疗法。请见AI Abbott,Brain Implants Show Promise Against Obsessive Disorder,"Nature 419(October 17,2002):658,and B.Nuttin et al.,"Electrical Stimulation in Anterior Limbs of Internal Capsules in Patients with Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder,Lancet 354.9189(October 30,1999):1526.
19.请见Retinal Implant Project的网址(http://www.bostonretinalimplant.org),其中包含了近年来发表的论文。其中一篇论文是R.J.Jensen et al.,Thresholds for Activation of Rabbit Retinal Ganglion Cells with an Ultrafine,Extracellular Microelectrode,Investigative Ophthalmalogy and Visual Science 44.8(August 2003):3533-43.
20.1997年,FDA允许Medtronic公司在大脑中的一侧注入,在2002年1月14日允许在大脑中的两侧注入。S.Snider,"FDA Approves Expanded Use of Brain Implant for Parkinsons Disease,"U.S.Food and Drug Administration,FDA Talk Paper,January 14,2002,http://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/ANSWERS/2002/ANS01130.html。最近的版本提供的是来自外部患者的软件更新。
21.Medtronic公司还向中风的大脑中注射,请见S.Hart,"Brain Implant Quells Tremors,"ABC News,December 23,1997,http://nasw.org/users/hart/subhtml/abcnews.html,也可见Medtronic的网站,http://www.medtronic.com。
22.Gunther Zeck and Peter Fromherz,Noninvasive Neuroelectronic Interfacing with Synaptically Connected Snail Neurons Immobilized on a Semiconductor Chip,Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 98.18(August 28,2001):10457-62.
23.请见R.Colin Johnson,"Scientists Activate Neurons with Quantum Dots,"EE Times,December 4,2001,http://www.eetimes.com/story/OEG20011204S0068.量子点可以用于想象,请见M.Dahan et al.,"Diffusion Dynamics of Glycine Receptors Revealed by Single-Quantum Dot Tracking,"Science 302.5644(October 17,2003):442-45;J.K.Jaiswal and S.M.Simon,"Potentials and Pitfalls of Fluorescent Quantum Dots for Biological Imaging,"Trends in Cell Biology 14.9(September 2004):497-504.
24.S.Shoham et al.,"Motor-Cortical Activity in Tetraplegics,"Nature 413.6858(October 25,2001):793.For the University of Utah news release,See "An Early Step Toward Helping the Paralyzed Walk,"October 24,2001,http://www.utah.edu/news/releases/01/oct/spinal.html.
25.史蒂芬·霍金的备注,Focus将其误译,引用于Nick Paton Walsh,"Alter Our DNA or Robots Will Take Over,Warns Hawking,"Observer,September 2,2001,http://observer.guardian.co.uk/uk_news/story/0,6903,545653,00.html.广泛的错误报道暗示,霍金在反对发展比人小的机器智能。事实上,他主张我们加速接近生物智能与非生物智能的连接。霍金为KurzweilAI.net提供了准确的证据("Hawking Misquoted on Computers Taking Over,"September 13,2001,http://www.KurzweilAI.net/news/frame.html?main=news_single.html?id%3D495)。
26.见第1章注释34。
27.一个例子,Nomad for Military Applications,由Microvision制造,一个在华盛顿的博塞尔的公司。参见http://www.microvision.com/nomadmilitary/index.html。
28.Olga Kharif,"Your Lapel Is Ringing,"Business Week,June 21,2004.
29.Laila Weir,"High-Tech Hearing Bypasses Ears,"Wired News,September 16,2004,http://www.wired.com/news/technology/0,1282,64963,00.html?tw=wn_tophead_4.
30.超音速技术,http://www.atcsd.com/tl_hss.html;听觉聚光,http://www.holosonics.com/technology.html.
31.Phillip F.Schewe,Ben Stein,American Institute of Physics Bulletin of Physics News 236(August 7,1995),http://www.aip.org/enews/physnews/1995/physnews.236.htm.也可见R.Weis and P.Fromherz,"Frequency Dependent Signal-Transfer in Neuron-Transistors,"Physical Review E 55(1997):877-89.
32.见本章注释18。也可见J.O.Winter et al.,"Recognition Molecule Directed Interfacing Between Semiconductor Quantum Dots and Nerve Cells,"Advanced Materials 13(November 2001):1673-77;I.Willner,B.Willner,"Biomaterials Integrated with Electronic Elements:En Route to Bioelectronics,"Trends in Biotechnology 19(June 2001):222-30;Deborah A.Fitzgerald,"Bridging the Gap with Bioelectronics,"Scientist 16.6(March 18,2002):38.
33.Robert Freitas提供了这一情况的分析:Robert A.Freitas Jr.,Nanomedicine,vol.1,Basic Capabilities,7.4.5.4节,"Cell Message Modification"(Georgetown,Tex.:Landes Bioscience,1999),pp.194-96,http://www.nanomedicine.com/NMI/7.4.5.4.htm#p5,以及7.4.5.6节,"Outmessaging to Neurons,"pp.196-97,http://www.nanomedicine.comINMI/7.4.5.6.htm#p2.
34.为描述Ramona工程,在TED大会上的虚拟现实展示视频,以及幕后"Making of Ramona"视频,见"All About Ramona,"http://www.KurzweilAI.net/meme/frame.html?m=9.
35.I.Fried et al.,"Electric Current Stimulates Laughter,"Nature 391.6668(February,12,1998):650.See Ray Kurzweil,The Age of Spiritual Machines(New York:Viking,1999).
36.Robert A.Freitas Jr.,Nanomedicine,vol.1,Basic Capabilities,section 7.3,"Communication Networks"(Georgetown,Tex.:Landes Bioscience,1999),pp.186-88,http://www.nanomedicine.com/NMI/7.3.htm.
37.Allen Kurzweil,The Grandcomplication:A Novel(New York:Hyperion,2002);Allen Kurzweil,A Case of Curiosities(New York:Harvest Books,2001).Allen Kurzweil is my first cousin.
38.如在Aubrey de Grey引用的,"Engineering Negligible Senescence:Rational Design of Feasible,comprehensive Rejuvenation Biotechnology,"Kronos Institute Seminar Series,2002年2月8日.Power-Point演示在http://www.gen.cam.ac.uk/sens/sensov.ppt.
39.Robert A.Freitas Jr.,"Death Is an Outrage!"在第五次Alcor Conference on Extreme Life Extension,Newport Beach上展示,Calif.,November 16,2002,http://www.rfreitas.com/Nano/DeathIsAnOutrage.htm,在KurzweilAI.net 2003年一月9号出版:http://www.KurzweilAI.net/articles/art0536.html.
40.Cromagnon,"30 years or less,often much less……":http://anthro.palomar.edu/homo2/sapiens_culture.htm.Egypt:Jac J.Janssen quoted in Brett Palmer,"Playing the Numbers Game,"in Skeptical Review,published online May 5,2004,at http://www.theskepticalreview.com/palmer/numbers.html.
Europe 1400:Gregory Clark,The Conquest of Nature:A Brief Economic History of the World(Princeton University Press,forth Coming,2005),chapter 5,"Mortality in the Malthusian Era,"http://www.econ.ucdavis.edu/faculty/gclark/GlobalHistory/Global%20History-5.pdf.
1800:James Riley,Rising Life Expectancy:A Global History(Cambridge,U.K.:Cambridge University Press,2001),pp.32-33.1900:http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/datalhus/tables/2003/03hus027.pdf.
41.这个博物馆最开始坐落在Boston,现在在Mountain View,Calif。(http://www.computerhistory.org)。
42.Lyman与Kahle关于长期存储:“一张好的纸有500年的寿命,计算机磁带有10年的寿命。当有一些活跃的组织可以做复制,我们将可以保持信息安全,我们没有一个有效的技术来做500年的数字复制……”Peter Lyman和Brewster Kahle,"Archiving Digital Cultural Artifacts:Organizing an Agenda for Action,"D-Lib Magazine,1998年7月~8月。Stewart Brand写道:“在热门新电脑之后,是一路的过时电脑、过时存储介质、过时应用、过时文件的尸体。科幻小说家Bruce Sterling认为我们的时代是‘死亡介质的黄金时代,它们中的大多数的工作寿命都只是一瞬间’。”Stewart Brand,"Written on the Wind,"Civilization Magazine,November 1998("01998" in Long Now terminology),available online at http://www.longnow.org/10klibrary/library.htm.
43.DARPA的信息处理技术部门,在静脉中的项目,叫做LifeLog,http://www.darpa.mil/ipto/Programs/lifelog;也可见Noah Shachtman,"A Spy Machine of DARPAs Dreams,"Wired News,May 20,2003,http://www.wired.com/news/business/0,1367,58909,00.html;Gordon Bell的项目(为了微软)是MyLifeBits,http://research.microsoft.com/research/barc/MediaPresence/MyLifeBits.aspx;用于恒今基金会,见http://longnow.org.
44.Bergeron在哈佛中医院,是一名麻醉学专家,也是很多书的作者,如Bioinformatics Computing,Biotech Industry:A Global,Economic,and Financing Overview,and The Wireless Web and Healthcare.
45.恒今基金会在发展一种可能的解决方法:Rosetta Disk,它将包含很多将来可能丢失的扩展文字。他们计划用基于两英寸镍盘的唯一的存储技术,每一个镍盘可以存储350000页,估计寿命在2000到10000年.见恒今基金会,Library Ideas,http://longnow.org/10klibrary/10kLibConference.htm。
46.John A.Parmentola,"Paradigm Shifting Capabilities for Army Transformation,"受邀论文,发表于SPIE European Symposium on Optics/Photonics in Security and Defence,October 25-28,2004;available electronically at Bridge 34.3(Fall 2004),http://www.nae.edu/NAE/bridgecom.nsf/weblinks/MKEZ-65RLTA?OpenDocument.
47.Fred Bayles,"Hightech Project Aims to Make Supersoldiers,"USA Today,May 23,2003,http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2003-05-22-nanotechusat_x.htm;See Institute for Soldier Nanotechnologies web site,http://web.mit.edu/isn;Sarah Putnam,"Researchers Tout Opportunities in Nanotech,"MIT News Office,October 9,2002,http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2002/cdcnanotech-1009.html.
48.Ron Schafer,"Robotics to Play Major Role in Future Warfighting,"http://www.jfcom.mil/newslink/storyarchive/2003/pa072903.htm;Dr.Russell Richards,"Unmanned Systems:A Big Player for Future Forces?"Unmanned Effects Workshop at the Applied Physics Laboratory,Johns Hopkins University,Baltimore,July 29-August 1,2003.
49.John Rhea,"NASA Robot in Form of Snake Planned to Penetrate Inaccessible Areas,"Military and Aerospace Electronics,November 2000,http://mae.pennnet.com/Articles/Article_Display.cfm?Section=Archives&Subsection=Display&AR TICLE_ID=86890.
50.Lakshmi Sandhana,"The Drone Armies Are Coming,"Wired News,August 30,2002,http://www.wired.com/news/technology/0,1282,54728,00.html.See also Mario Gerla,Kaixin Xu,Allen Moshfegh,"Minuteman:Forward Projection of Unmanned Agents Using the Airborne Internet,"IEEE Aerospace Conference 2002,Big Sky,Mont.,March 2002:http://www.cs.ucla.edu/NRL/wireless/uploads/mgerla_aerospace02.pdf.
51.James Kennedy,Russell C.Eberhart,Yuhui Shi,Swarm Intelligence(San Francisco:Morgan Kaufmann,2001),http://www.swarmintelligence.org/SIBook/SI.php.
52.Will Knight,"Military Robots to Get Swarm Intelligence,"April 25,2003,http://www.newscientist.com/news/news.jsp?id=ns99993661.
53.同上。
54.S.R.White et al.,"Autonomic Healing of Polymer Composites,"Nature 409(February 15,2001):794-97,http://www.autonomic.uiuc.edu/files/NaturePaper.pdf;Kristin Leutwyler,"Self-Healing Plastics,"ScientificAmerican.com,February 15,2001,http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?articleID=000B307F-C71A-1C5AB882809EC588ED9F.
55.Sue Baker,"Predator Missile Launch Test Totally Successful,"Strategic Affairs,April 1,2001,http://www.stratmag.com/issueApr-l/page02.htm.
56.See OpenCourseWare course,at http://ocw.mit.edu/index.html.
57.Brigitte Bouissou引用MIT OpenCourseWares额外的引用页,见http://ocw.mit.edu/Ocw-Web/Global/AboutOCW/additionalquotes.htm,以及Eric Bender,"Teach Locally,Educate Globally,"MIT Technology Review,June 2004,http://www.techreview.com/articles/04/06/bender0604.asp?p=1.
58.Kurzweil教育系统(http://www.Kurzweiledu.com)为读写困难的人提供了Kurzweil3000阅读系统。它可以为用户阅读任何高分辨率的书。它包括很多提高阅读用户能力的特征。
59.正如Natasha Vita-More引证的,"Arterati on Ideas,"http://64.233.167.104/search?q=cache:QAnJsLcXHXUJ:www.extropy.com/ideas/journal/previous/1998/02-01.html+Arterati+on+ideas&hl=en和http://www.extropy.com/ideas/journal/previous/1998/02-01.html.
60.Christine Boese,"The Screen-Age:Our Brains in our Laptops,"CNN.com,August 2,2004.
61.Thomas Hobbes,Leviathan(1651).
62.Seth Lloyd,Y.Jack Ng,"Black Hole Computers,"Scientific American,November 2004.
63.Alan M.MacRobert,"The Allen Telescope Array:SETIs Next Big Step,"Sky&Telescope,April 2004,http://skyandtelescope.com/printable/resources/seti/article_256.asp.
64.同上。
65.同上。
66.C.H.Townes,"At What Wavelength Should We Search for Signals from Extraterrestrial Intelligence?"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 80(1983):1147-51.S.A.Kingsley in The Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence in the Optical Spectrum,vol.2,S.A.Kingsley and G.A.Lemarchand,eds.(1996)Proc.WPIE 2704:102-16.
67.N.S.Kardashev,"Transmission of Information by Extraterrestrial Civilizations,"Soviet Astronomy 8.2(1964):217-20.Summarized in Guillermo A.Lemarchand,"Detectability of Extraterrestrial Technological Activities,"SETIQuest 1:1,pp.3-13,http://www.coseti.org/lemarch1.htm.
68.Frank Drake,Dava Sobel,Is Anyone Out There?(New York:Dell,1994);Carl Sagan,Frank Drake,"The Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence,"Scientific American(May 1975):80-89.A Drakee-quation calculator can be found at http://www.activemind.com/Mysterious/Topics/SETI/drake_equation.html.
69.德雷克方程式的许多描述中,将f L表述为行星生命的一小部分,在这个过程中发生无线电传输,但这应该恰当地表达为宇宙中生命的一小部分,因为我们不会真的介意那个星球持续了多久,我们介意的是无线电传输持续了多久。
70.Seth Shostak提供了“一个估计:大约在1万到100万之间”。Marcus Chown,"ET First Contact 'Within 20 Years,'"New Scientist 183.2457(July 24,2004).可参见http://www.new scientist.com/article.ns?id=dn6189。
71.T.L.Wilson,"The Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence,"Nature,February 22,2001.
72.最近的估计是在100到150亿年之间。在2002年,基于哈勃空间望远镜的数据,这一估计是在130到140亿年。由Case Western Reserve大学的科学家Lawrence Krauss与Dartmouth大学的Brian Chaboyer发表的研究,从太阳演化中找出结论,宇宙的年龄有95%可能在112到200亿年。Lawrence Krauss and Brian Chaboyer,"Irion,the Milky Ways Restless Swarms of Stars,"Science 299(January 3,2003):60-62.NASA最近的研究将宇宙的寿命限制在137亿年,正负2亿,http://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/m_mm/mr_age.html。
73.Quoted in Eric M.Jones,"'Where Is Everybody?':An Account of Fermis Question,"Los Alamos National Laboratories,March 1985,http://www.bayarea.net/~kins/AboutMe/Fermi_and_Teller/fermi_question.html.
74.首先,思考一下关于宇宙冷计算机的1042cps的估计(在第3章中)。我们可以估计太阳系的质量,大约等于太阳的质量2×1030kg。万分之0.5是1027kg。1042cps每kg,1027kg可以提供1069cps,如果我们用1050cps估计最终的热电脑,会得到1077cps。
75.Anders Sandberg,"The Physics of Information Processing Superobjects:Daily Life Among the Jupiter Brains,"Journal of Evolution and Technology 5(December 22,1999),http://www.jetpress.org/volume5/Brains2.pdf.
76.Freeman John Dyson,"Search for Artificial Stellar Sources of Infrared Radiation,"Science 131(June 3,1960):1667-68.
77.引自Sandberg,"Physics of Information Processing Superobjects."
78.1994年有1955亿颗半导体芯片单元,2004年有4335亿。Jim Feldhan,president,Semico Research Corporation,http://www.semico.com.
79.Robert Freitas是使用机器人探针,特别是自我复制的机器人探针的支持者首领,见Robert A.Freitas Jr.,"Interstellar Probes:A New Approach to SETI,"J.British Interplanet.Soc.33(March 1980):95-100,http://www.rfreitas.com/Astro/lnterstellarProbesJBIS1980.htm;Robert A.Freitas Jr.,"A Self-Reproducing Interstellar Probe,"J.British Interplanet.Soc.33(July 1980):251-64,http://www.rfreitas.com/Astro/ReproJBISJuly1980.htm;Francisco Valdes,Robert A.Freitas Jr.,"Comparison of Reproducing and Nonreproducing Starprobe Strategies for Galactic Exploration,"J.British Interplanet.Soc.33(November 1980):402-8,http://www.rfreitas.com/Astro/ComparisonReproNov1980.htm;Robert A.Freitas Jr.,"Debunking the Myths of Interstellar Probes,"AstroSearch 1(July-August 1983):8-9,http://www.rfreitas.com/Astro/ProbeMyths1983.htm;Robert A.Freitas Jr.,"The Case for Interstellar Probes,"J.British Interplanet.Soc.36(November 1983):490-95,http://www.rfreitas.com/Astro/TheCaseForInterstellarProbes1983.htm.
80.M.Stenner et al.,"The Speed of Information in a 'Fast-Light' Optical Medium,"Nature 425(October 16,2003):695-98.See also Raymond Y.Chiao et al.,"Superluminal and Parelectric Effects in Rubidium Vapor and Ammonia Gas,"Quantum and Semiclassical Optics 7(1995):279.
81.I.Marcikic et al.,"Long-Distance Teleportation of Qubits at Tele Communication Wavelengths,"Nature 421(January 2003):509-13;John Roach,"Physicists Teleport Quantum Bits over Long Distance,"National Geographic News,January 29,2003;Herb Brody,"Quantum Cryptography;in"10 Emerging Technologies That Will Change the World,"MIT Technology Review,February 2003;N.Gisin et al.,"Quantum Correlations with Moving Observers,"Quantum Optics(December 2003):51;Quantum Cryptography exhibit,ITU Telecom World 2003,Geneva,Switzerland,October 1,2003;Sora Song,"The Quantum Leaper,"Time,March 15,2004;Mark Buchanan,"Lights Spooky Connections SetNew Distance Record,New Scientist,June 28,1997.
82.Charles H.Lineweaver,Tamara M.Davis,"Misconceptions About the Big Bang,"Scientific American,March 2005.
83.A.Einstein and N.Rosen,"The Particle Problem in the General Theory of Relativity,"Physical Review 48(1935):73.
84.J.A.Wheeler,"Geons,"Physical Review 97(1955):511-36.
85.M.S.Morris,K.S.Thorne,U.Yurtsever,"Wormholes,Time Machines,and the Weak Energy Condition,"Physical Review Letters 61.13(September 26,1988):1446-49;M.S.Morris and K.S.Thorne,"Wormholes in Spacetime and Their Use for Interstellar Travel:A Tool for Teaching General Relativity,"American Journal of Physics 56.5(1988):395-412.
86.M.Visser,"Wormholes,Baby Universes,and Causality,"Physical Review D 41.4(February 15,1990):1116-24.
87.Sandberg,"Physics of Information Processing Superobjects."
88.David Hochberg,Thomas W.Kephart,"Wormhole Cosmology and the Horizon Problem,"Physical Review Letters 70(1993):2665-68,http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v70/i18/p2665_1;D.Hochbergand M.Visser,"Geometric Structure of the Generic Static Transversable Wormhole Throat,"Physical Review D 56(1997):4745.
89.J.K.Webb et al.,"Further Evidence for Cosmological Evolution of the Fine Structure Constant,"Physical Review Letters 87.9(August 27,2001):091301;"When Constants Are Not Constant,"Physics in Action(October 2001),http://physicsweb.org/articles/world/14/10/4.
90.Joao Magueijo,John D.Barrow,Haavard Bunes Sandvik,"Is It e or Is It c?Experimental Tests of Varying Alpha,"Physical Letters B 549(2002):284-89.
91.John Smart,"Answering the Fermi Paradox:Exploring the Mechanisms of Universal Transcension,"http://www.transhumanist.com/Smart-Fermi.htm.See also http://singuIaritywatch.com and his biography at http://www.singuIaritywatch.com/bio_johnsmart.html.
92.James N.Gardner,Biocosm:The New Scientific Theory of Evolution:Intelligent Life Is the Architect of the Universe(Maui:Inner Ocean,2003).
93.Lee Smolin in "Smolin vs.Susskind:The Anthropic Principle,"Edge 145,http://www.edge.org/documents/archive/edge145.html;Lee Smolin,"Scientific Alternatives to the Anthropic Priniple,"http://arxiv.org/abs/hepth/0407213.
94.Kurzweil,Age of Spiritual Machines,pp.258-60.
95.Gardner,Biocosm.
96.S.W.Hawking,"Particle Creation by Black Holes,"Communications in Mathematical Physics 43(1975):199-220.
97.最初的打赌起源于http://www.theory.caltech.edu/people/preskill/info_bet.html。也可见Peter Rodgers,"Hawking Loses Black Hole Bet,"Physics World,August 2004,http://physicsweb.org/articles/news/8/7/11.
98.为了达到这些估计,Lloyd观察了物质的浓度(大约每立方米一个氢原子),并且计算了宇宙中全部的能量。将这一估计除以普朗克常量,他得到大约1090cps.
Seth Lloyd,"Ultimate Physical Limits to Computation,"Nature 406.6799(August 31,2000):1047-54.Electronic versions(version 3 dated February 14,2000)available at http://arxiv.org/abs/quantph/9908043(August 31,2000).The following link requires a payment to access:http://www.nature.com/cgitaf/DynaPage.taf?file=/nature/journal/v406/n6799/full/4061047a0_fs.html&content_filetype=PDF.
99.Jacob D.Bekenstein,"Information in the Holographic Universe:Theoretical Results about Black Holes Suggest That the Universe Could Be Like a Gigantic Hologram,"Scientific American 289.2(August 2003):58-65,http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?articleID=000AF072-4891-1F0A-97AE80A84189EEDF.
第7章 我是奇点
1.In Jay W.Richards et al.,Are We Spiritual Machines?Ray Kurzweil vs.the Critics of Strong A.I.(Seattle:Discovery Institute,2002),introduction,http://www.KurzweilAI.net/meme/frame.html?main=/articles/art0502.html.
2.Ray Kurzweil and Terry Grossman,M.D.,Fantastic Voyage:Live Long Enough to Live Forever(New York:Rodale Books,2004).
3.同上。
4.同上。
5.Max More and Ray Kurzweil,"Max More and Ray Kurzweil on the Singularity,"February 26,2002,http://www.KurzweilAI.net/articles/art0408.html.
6.同上。
7.同上。
8.Arthur Miller,After the Fall(New York:Viking,1964).
9.在1957年念给牛津哲学社团人论文,并出版为"Minds,Machines and Gödel,"Philosophy 36(1961):112-27.Kenneth Sayre and Frederick Crosson,编辑并第一次出版,The Modeling of Mind(Notre Dame:University of Notre Dame Press,1963),pp.255-71.
10.Martine Rothblatt,"Biocyberethics:Should We Stop acompany from Unplugging an Intelligent Computer?"September 28,2003,http://www.KurzweilAI.net/meme/frame.html?main=/articles/art0594.html(includes links to a Webcast and transcripts).
11.Jaron Lanier,"One Half of a Manifesto,"Edge,http://www.edge.org/3rd_culture/lanier/lanier_index.html;see also Jaron Lanier,"One-Half of a Manifesto,"Wired News,December 2000,http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/8.12/lanier.html.
12.同上。
13.Norbert Wiener,Cybernetics:or,Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine(Cambridge,Mass.:MIT Press,1948).
14."How Do You Persist When Your Molecules Dont?"Science and Consciousness Review 1.1(June 2004),http://www.scicon.org/articles/20040601.html.
15.David J.Chalmers,"Facing Up to the Problem of Consciousness,"Journal of Consciousness Studies 2.3(1995):200-219,http://jamaica.u.arizona.edu/~chalmers/papers/facing.html.
16.Huston Smith,The Sacred Unconscious,videotape(The Wisdom Foundation,2001),available for sale at http://www.fonsvitae.com/sacredhuston.html.
17.Jerry A.Fodor,RePresentations:Philosophical Essays on the Foundations of Cognitive Science(Cambridge,Mass.:MIT Press,1981).
第8章 GNR:希望与危险深度纠结
1.Bill McKibben,"How Much Is Enough?The Environmental Movement as a Pivot Point in Human History",哈佛环境价值观研讨会,2000年10月18。
2.20世纪60年代,美国政府做了一个实验,让三个刚从物理系毕业的学生仅仅使用已经公开的信息来制造核武器,结果很成功,这三个学生花了大概三年时间制造了一个。(http://www.pimall.com/nais/nl/n.nukes.html)。如何制造一个原子弹的步骤可以在网上找到,并已经由国家实验室结集出版。2002年,由于这些信息被删除了,英国国防部向公共记录办公室发布了制造原子弹的测量、图表和精确细节(http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/1932702.stm)。注意这些链接不包含制造原子武器的实际步骤。
3."The John Stossel Special:You Cant Say That!"ABC News,March 23,2000.
4.网上有大量的信息,包括关于如何制造炸弹、武器和爆炸物的军事手册。有些信息是错误的,但是关于这些课题的正确信息还是能够访问到的,尽管有人努力删除这些信息。1997年7月,国会通过了一项修正案(the Feinstein Amendment,SP419),给国防部拨款,禁止制造炸弹的方法传播。见Anne Marie Helmenstine,"How to Build a Bomb"2003年2月10日,http://chemistry.about.com/library/weekly/aa021003a.htm。有毒工业化学品的信息在网上和图书馆也很常见,同样,培养细菌和病毒的信息和工具、制造电脑病毒的技术、攻击电脑和网络的技术也一样常见。注意,我没有提供这些信息的具体例子,因为这可能帮助破坏分子或者破坏团体。我知道,哪怕只是陈述这些信息的可用性,都会有可能启发破坏分子或团体,但我觉得公开讨论这个问题的好处更多。另外,在媒体或其他场所,这些信息的可能已经被广泛地讨论。
5.Ray Kurzweil,The Age of Intelligent Machines(Cambridge,Mass.:MIT Press,1990).
6.Ken Alibek,Biohazard(New York:Random House,1999).
7.Ray Kurzweil,The Age of Intelligent Machines(New York:Viking,1999).
8.Bill Joy,"Why the Future Doesnt Need Us" Wired,April 2000,http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/8.04/joy.html.
9.基因拼接手册(如A.J.Harwood,ed,Basic DNA and RNA Protocols(Totowa,N.J.:Humana Press,1996))和试剂,还有试剂盒使基因拼接基本可以实现。即使在西方限制获得这些材料,很多其他国家公司可以提供同等材料。
10.欲知“黑冬”模拟实验详情,见"DARK WINTER:A Bioterrorism Exercise June 2001":http://www.biohazardnews.net/scen_smallpox.shtml;只想简单了解,见http://www.homelandsecurity.org/darkwinter/index.cfm。
11.Richard Preston,"The Specter of a New and Deadlier Smallpox",New York Times,October 14,2002,available at http://www.ph.ucla.edu/epi/bioter/specterdeadliersmallpox.html.
12.Alfred W.Crosby,Americas Forgotten Pandemic:The Influenza of 1918(New York:Cambridge University Press,2003).
13."Power from Blood Could Lead toHuman Batteries",Sydney Morning Herald,August 4,2003,http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2003/08/0311059849278131.html.也可见第5章注释129,也可见S.C.Barton,J.Gallaway和P.Atanassov,"Enzymatic Biofuel Cells for Implantable and Microscale Devices",Chemical Reviews 104.10(October 2004):4867-86.
14.J.M.Hunt计算出地球上有1.55×1019kg(1022)的有机碳。基于这个数字,假设所有的有机碳都包含在生物质中(注意生物质的定义不是很清晰,所以我们采用一个保守的广泛采用的方法),我们可以计算出碳原子的近似值,如下:
碳原子的平均重量(匹配同位素率)=12.011
生物质中的碳=1.55×1022g/12.011=1.3×1021mol
1.3×1011×6.02×1023(阿伏伽德罗数)=7.8×1044碳原
J.M.Hunt,Petroleum Geochemistry and Geology(San Francisco:W.H.Freeman,1979).
15.Robert A.Freitas Jr,"The Gray Goo Problem",March 20,2001,http://www.KurzweilAI.net/articles/art0142.html.
16."Gray Goo Is a Small Issue",简要文档,纳米技术责任中心,December 14,2003,http://crnano.org/BD-Goo.htm;Chris Phoenix and Mike Treder,"Safe Utilization of Advanced Nanotechnology",纳米技术责任中心,January 2003,http://crnano.org/safe.htm;K.Eric Drexler,Engines of Creation,11章,"Engines of Destruction",(New York:Anchor Books,1986),pp.171-90,http://www.foresight.org/EOC/EOC_Chaptec11.html;Robert A.Freitas Jr.and Ralph C.Merkle,Kinematic Self-Replicating Machines 5.11节,"Replicators and Public Safety"(Georgetown,Tex.:Landes Bioscience,2004),pp.196-99,http://www.MolecularAssembler.com/KSRM/5.11.htm,以及6.3.1节,"Molecular Assemblers Are Too Dangerous"pp204-6,http://www.MolecularAssembler.com/KSRM/6.3.1.htm;前景研究所,"Molecular Nanotechnology Guidelines:Draft Version 3.7"June 4,2000,http://www.foresight.org/guidelines/.
17.Robert A Freitas Jr,"Gray Goo Problem"和"Some Limits to Global Ecophagy by Biovorous Nanoreplicators,with Public Policy Recommendations",Zyvex preprint,April 2000,"Malicious Ecophagy"8.4节和"Ecophagic Thermal Pollution Limits(ETPL)"6.0节,http://www.foresight.org/NanoRev/Ecophagy.html.
18.Nick D Bostrom,"Existential Risks:Analyzing Human Extinction Scenarios and Related Hazards",May 29,2001,http://www.KurzweilAI.net/meme/frame.html?main=/articles/art0194.html。
19.Robert Kennedy,13 Days(London:Macmillan,1968),p.110.
20.In H.Putnam,"The Place of Facts in a World of Values",in D.Huff and O.Prewitt,eds,The Nature of the Physical Universe(New York:John Wiley,1979),p114.
21.Graham Allison,核恐怖主义(New York:Times Books,2004)。
22.Martin I.Meltzer,“多重联系日期和SARS的潜伏期”,Emerging Infectious Diseases 10.2(2004年2月),http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/EID/vol10no2/03-0426-G1.htm。
23.Robert A.Freitas Jr,“Microbivores:人工机械吞噬细胞使用消化和排放协议”,Zyvex预印本,2001年3月,http://www.rfreitas.com/Nano/Microbivores.htm;“Microbivores:人工机械吞噬细胞”,Foresight Update,no.44,2001年3月31日,pp.11-13,http://www.imm.org/Reports/Rep025.html。
24.Max More,"The Proactionary Principle"2004年5月,http://www.maxmore.com/proactionary.htm和http://www.extropy.org/proactionaryprinciple.htm。More简要说明了proactionary的原则,如下所示:
1)人类在技术创新上的自由对人类来说是很宝贵的。因此,举证责任属于那些建议限制性措施的人。所有建议的措施都应仔细检查。
2)通过现有的科学理论而不是流行的看法进行风险评估,允许有正常的推理偏差。
3)优先考虑改善已知的对于人类健康和环境质量的威胁,而不是假设的风险。
4)在相同的基础上,治疗技术风险就像自然风险,应避免忽视自然风险和过度重视人类技术风险。应充分考虑到技术进步带来的好处。
5)评估放弃技术所失去的机会,考虑其他可靠的代替方案的代价和风险,审慎考虑广泛的影响和后续效应。
6)只有当一项活动可能的影响具有很大的可能性和严重性时,才需要考虑限制措施。在这种情况下,如果活动也带来好处,那么通过适应不利影响可以减小影响。如果限制技术发展的措施看起来合理,确保这些措施的度和可能产生的效果的度是一致的。
7)当选择一项措施来限制技术革新,优先决定的标准如下:对人类和其他智能生命的影响优先于对物种的影响;对人类健康的非致命威胁优先于限制环境的威胁(在合理范围内);迫在眉睫的威胁优先于遥远的威胁;通过给确定的威胁高于不确定的威胁优先权,不可逆转或持久的影响高于短暂影响的优先权,选择具有高期望值的措施。
25.Martin Rees,Our Final Hour:A Scientist's Warning:How Terror,Error,and Environmental Disaster Threaten Humankind's Future in This Centuryon Earth and Beyond(New York:Basic Books,2003).
26.Scott Shane,Dismantling Utopia:How Information Ended the Soviet Union(Chicago:Ivan R.Dee,1994);see also the review by James A.,Dorn at http://www.cato.org/pubs/journal/cj16n2-7.html.
27.见George DeWan,"Diary of a Colonial Housewife",Newsday,2005,几个世纪以前,人类生活困难的一个原因,参见http://www.newsday.com/community/guide/lihistory/ny-history-hs331a,0,6101197.story。
28.Jim Oeppen和James W.Vaupel,“打破预期寿命的限制”,Science 296.5570(May10,2002):1029-31。
29.Steve Bowman和Helit Barel,大规模杀伤性武器:恐怖主义威胁,Congressional Research Service Report for Congress,1999年12月8日,http://www.cnie.org/nle/crsreports/international/inter-75.pdf。
30.Eliezer S.Yudkowsky,“创造友好人工智能1.0,仁慈目标架构的分析和设计”(2001),The Singularity Institute,http://www.singinst.org/CFAI/;Eliezer S.Yudkowsky,“友好人工智能是什么?”May 3,2001,http://www.KurzweilAI.net/meme/frame.html?main=/articles/art0172.html.
31.Ted Kaczynski,"The Unabombers Manifesto,"May 14,2001,http://www.KurzweilAI.netlmeme/frame.html?main=/articles/art0182.html.
32.Bill McKibben,Enough:Staying Human in an Engineered Age(New York:Times Books,2003).
33.Kaczynski,"The Unabombers Manifesto."
34.Foresight Institute and IMM,"Foresight Guidelines on Molecular Nanotechnology,"February 21,1999,http://www.foresight.org/guidelines/current.html;Christine Peterson,"Molecular Manufacturing:Societal Implications of Advanced Nanotechnology,"April 9,2003,http://www.KurzweilAI.net/meme/frame.html?main=/articles/art0557.html;Chris Phoenix and Mike Treder,"Safe Utilization of Advanced Nanotechnology,"January 28,2003,http://www.KurzweilAI.net/meme/frame.html?main=/articles/art0547.html;Robert A.Freitas Jr.,"The Gray Goo Problem,"KurzweilAI.net,20 March 2002,http://www.KurzweilAI.net/meme/frame.html?main=/articles/art0142.html.
35.Robert A.Freitas Jr.和Ray Kurzweil的私下交流,2005年1月。Freitas详细描述了他的关于Robert A的提议。Freitas Jr.,Some Limits to Global Ecophagy by BiovorousNanoreplicators,with Public Policy Recommendations.
36.Ralph C.Merkle,"Self Replicating Systems and Low Cost Manufacturing,"1994,http://www.zyvex.com/nanotech/selfRepNATO.html.
37.Neil King Jr.and Ted Bridis,"FBI System Covertly Searches E-mail,"Wall Street Journal Online(July 10,2000),http://zdnet.com.com/2100-11-522071.html?legacy=zdnn.
38.Larry Thompson,"Human Gene Therapy:Harsh Lessons,High Hopes,"FDA Consumer Magazine(September-October 2000),http://www.fda.gov/fdac/features/2000/500_gene.html.
39.Bill Joy,"Why the Future Doesnt Need Us."
40.前景(Foresight Institute,version 4.0,October 2004,http://www.foresight.org/guidelines/current.html)指导方针的设计是用来陈述纳米技术可能带来的积极的和消极的结果。他们试图通知居民、公司和政府,并提供具体的指导方针,负责任地发展基于纳米技术的分子制造。前景指导方针最初制定的是关于分子纳米技术研究政策指导方针,由前景机构发起,该机构用于分子制造(IMM),1999年2月19~21日。参与者包括James Bennett、Greg Burch、K.Eric Drexler、Neil Jacobstein、Tanya Jones、Ralph Merkle、Mark Miller、Ed Niehaus、Pat Parker、Christine Peterson、Glenn Reynolds和Philippe Van Nedervelde。这些方针修改了很多次。
41.Martine Rothblatt,United Therapeutics的CEO,建议用管理体制取代中止技术,据此,新的国际异种器官移植当局可以检查和批准无病原体的制造的猪作为异种移植可接受的来源。Rothblatt的解决方案通过允许每个国家加入DCA,以帮助标志恶意的异种移植外科医生,在范围内实施规则,公平地共享无病原体的异种移植为本国的器官移植失败的居民服务。见Martine Rothblatt,Your Life or Mine:Using Geoethics to Resolve the Conflict Between Public and Private Interests,in Xenotransplantation(Burlington,Vt.:Ashgate,2004).Disclosure:I am on the board of directors of United Therapeutics.
42.见Singularity Institute,http://www.singinst.org。也可见本章注释30。Yudkowsky成立了人工智能奇点研究院(the Singularity Institute for Artificial Intelligence,SIAI)来发展“友好人工智能”,试图创造可认知的内容,设计特征以及可认知的架构,从而产生善良的类人或比人类更好的人工智能。SIAI已经得到了发展。SIAI关于友好人工智能的指导方针:"Friendly AI,"http://www.singinst.org/friendly/。Ben Goertzel和他的人工智能研究所也检查发展友好人工智能相关的问题;他现在的焦点是发展人工智能引擎,一个学习算法和架构的装置。Peter Voss,Adaptive A.I.公司的创建者,也在关于人工智能问题进行合作:http://adaptiveai.com/。
43.Integrated Fuel Cell Technologies,http://ifctech.com.Disclosure:The author is an early investor in and adviser to IFCT.
第9章 回应批评家
1.Michael Denton,"Organism and Machine",in Jay W.Richards et al.,Are We Spiritual Machines?,Ray Kurzweil vs the Critics of Strong A.I.(Seattle:Discovery Institute Press,2002),http://www.KurzweilAI.net/meme/frame.html?main=/articles/art0502.html.
2.Jaron Lanier,"One Half of a Manifesto",Edge(September 25,2000),http://www.edge.org/documents/archive/edge74.html.
3.同上。
4.见第5章和第6章的例子,狭义的人工智能已经深深嵌入到我们的现代基础设施中。
5.Lanier,"One Half of a Manifesto".
6.一个例子是Kurzweil的声音,最初由Kurzweil进行实用智能发展。
7.Alan G.Ganek,"The Dawning of the Autonomic Computing Era",IBM Systems Journal(March 2003),http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0ISJ/is_1_42/ai_98695283/print.
8.Arthur H.Watson and Thomas J.McCabe,"Structured Testing:A Testing Methodology Using the Cyclomatic Complexity Metric",NIST特刊500-35,计算机系统实验室,国家标准技术研究院,1996。
9.Mark A.Richards and Gary A.Shaw,"Chips,Architectures and Algorithms:Reflections on the Exponential Growth of Digital Signal Processing Capability",提交到IEEE Signal Processing,December 2004.
10.Jon Bentley,"Programming Pearls,"Communications of the ACM 27.11(November 1984):1087-92.
11.C.Eldering,M.L.Sylla,and J.A.Eisenach,"Is There a Moores Law for Bandwidth,"IEEEcommunications(October 1999):117-21.
12.J.W.Cooley and J.W.Tukey,"An Algorithm for the Machine Computation of Complex Fourier Series,"Mathematics of Computation 19(April 1965):297-301.
13.估计有1011个神经元,估计神经元间连接是这个数的1000倍,所以有1014个连接。每一个连接要求至少70bit来为连接的每一端的神经元存储ID。所以大概要1016bit。基因组没压缩是大概60亿(大约1010),两者比例相当于106:1,见第4章。
14.Robert A.Freitas Jr.,Nanomedicine,vol.I,Basic Capabilities,section 6.3.4.2,"Biological Chemomechanical Power Conversion"(Georgetown,Tex.:Landes Bioscience,1999),PP.147-48,http://www.nanomedicine.com/NMI/6.3.4.2.htm#p4;See:llustration at http://www.nanomedicine.com/NMI/Figures/6.2.jpg.
15.Richard Dawkins,"Why Dont Animals Have Wheels?"Sunday Times,November 24,1996,http://www.simonyi.ox.ac.uk/dawkins/WorldOfDawkins-archive/Dawkins/Work/Articles/1996-11-24wheels.shtml.
16.Thomas Ray,"Kurzweils Turing Fallacy,"in Richards et al.,Are We Spiritual Machines?
17.同上。
18.Anthony J.Bell,"Levels and Loops:The Future of Artificial Intelligence and Neuroscience,"Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B 354(1999):2013-20,http://www.cnl.salk.edu/~tony/ptrsl.pdf.
19.同上。
20.David Dewey,"Introduction to the Mandelbrot Set,"http://www.ddewey.net/mandelbrot.
21.ChristofKoch quoted in John Horgan,The End of Science(Reading,Mass.:Addison-Wesley,1996).
22.Roger Penrose,Shadows of the Mind:A Search for the Missing Science of Consciousness(New York:Oxford University Press,1996);Stuart Hameroff and Roger Penrose,"Orchestrated Objective Reduction of Quantum Coherence in Brain Microtubules:The 'Orch OR' Model for Consciousness,"Mathematics and Computer Simulation 40(1996):453-80,http://www.quanturn Consciousness.org/penrosehameroff/orchOR.html.
23.Sander Olson,"Interview with Seth Lloyd,"November 17,2002,http://www.nanomagazine.com/i.php?id=2002_11_17.
24.Bell,"Levels and Loops."
25.见第2章计算曲线图的指数增长。
26.Alfred N.Whitehead and Bertrand Russell,Principia Mathematica,3 vols.(Cambridge,U.K.:Cambridge University Press,1910,1912,1913).
27.Gödels in Completeness theorem first appeared in his "Uberformal unenscheiderbare Satze der Principia Mathematica und verwandter Systeme I,"Monatshefte f r Mathematik und Physik 38(1931):173-98.
28.Alan M.Turing,"On Computable Numbers with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem,"Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society 42(1936):230-65.The "Entscheidungsproblem"是一个决议,或者是停止难题,即如何超前决定在一个无限循环中算法会停止还是会继续。
29.出现在Alonzo Church的教派版本,"An Unsolvable Problem of Elementary Number Theory,"American Journal of Mathematics 58(1936):345-63.
30.为了令人愉快地引进教派-图灵理论的含义,见Douglas R.Hofstadter,Gödel;Escher,Bach:An Eternal Golden Braid(New York:BasicBooks,1979)。
31.“忙碌的河狸”问题是一大类不可计算的功能的例子,见Tibor Rado,"On Non Computable Functions,"Bell System Technical Journal 41.3(1962):877-84.
32.Ray,"Kurzweils Turing Fallacy."
33.Lanier,"One Half of a Manifesto."
34.人,不睡觉,不昏迷,发育到一定水平(不是胎儿),就有意识。
35.John R.Searle,"I Married a Computer,"in Richards et al.,Are We Spiritual Machines?
36.John R.Searle,The Rediscovery of the Mind(Cambridge,Mass.:MIT Press,1992).
37.Hans Moravec,Letter to the Editor,New York Review of Books,http://www.kurzweiltech.com/Searle/searle_response_letter.htm.
38.John Searle to Ray Kurzweil,December 15,1998.
39.Lanier,"One Half of a Manifesto."
40.David Brooks,"Good News About Poverty,"New York Times November 27,2004,A35.
41.Denton,"Organism and Machine."
后记
1.就像James Gardner引证的,"Selfish Biocosm,"Complexity 5.3(January-February 2000):34-45。
2.在函数y=1/x中,如果x=0,那么函数无定义,但是我们可以看到y值趋于无穷。我们可以把等式的两边调换,使y=1/x变成x=1/y。如果我们设y为一个很大的有穷数,我们会看到x将变得非常小,但不会是0,不管y多大。所以在y=1/x中,当x=0时y的值可以视作大于任何有穷数的y值。表达这一点的另一个方法是,我们可以超越任何可能的有穷y:将x设为0和1间的任何值,然后用1除以x得到y。
3.估计人脑功能模拟需要1016cps(见第3章),而人脑大概有1010(低于100亿)个,因此所有生物大脑总共大概是1026cps。所以1090超过这个值1064倍。如果我们使用一个更保守的数字1019来估计模拟每一个神经元组件的每一个非线性的需要,那么这个比例因子是1061。万亿的5次方是1060。
4.见之前注释的估计。1042cps超出这个值1016倍。
5.Stephen Jay Gould,"Joves Thunderbolts,"Natural History 103.10(October 1994):6-12;Chapter 13 in Dinosaur in a Haystack:Reflections in Natural History(New York:Harmony Books,1995).