V Xinjiang

In Xinjiang, several of the major civilizations of the world converged, contacting and influencing each other. Among them were the civilizations of China, Greece, India, and the religions of Islam, Buddhism, Manicheism, Christianity, and so on.

In ancient times there were already some of classical Indian literature entering Xinjiang. For example, the Buddhist poet Asvaehoza's plays. However, there is no complete version of the Valmiki's Rāmāyana in Xinjiang. While modem Xinjiang languages have no complete versions, there are Rama stories in some of the ancient languages. These might not be translations of the Valmiki version; the story is basically the same. I will introduce two of them below.

(1) The ancient language of Khotan

Relics of an ancient Khotan language have been discovered in what is called the Khotan region of Xinjiang today. Although the Indian alphabet is used, careful scholarly study has shown that the language belongs to the Iranian language family. Many Buddhist sutras were written in this language. (see R. E. Emmerick, A Guide to the Literature of Khotan , Studie Philologica Buddhica Occasional Paper Series Ⅲ, Tokyo, The Reiyukai Library, 1979. ) Parts of them concern the Rama story. These relics have been examined and translated into English by the English scholar H. W. Bailey (London University, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, Vol X, Parts 1 and 3, 1939. ) Bailey's commentary on the relics (pp. 363－364, pp. 559－561) may serve as a reference. In the following comparison I will briefly recount the story of Rama according to Bailey's work. His translation and retelling fills three volumes. Before translating, he gleaned some material about Rama from other relics of Khotan languages. The names he mentioned are Rama's father Karjuna (Arjuna) (1), Rrisma (Rraisma, Laksmana) (2), Sita, the Ten－Headed Devil, Rama, and so on.

I will now briefly introduce the content of the three volumes.

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The whole story is in a local form of Jataka. (3) At the beginning there is mention of Krakasunda Kanakamuni and Kasyapa Sakyamuni, followed by a narration of the story.

There was a brahmin (Manava) born in the Mahesvara family. He went into the mountains to draw a mandala and to worship his god, who personally descended from heaven and presented him with a magic milk cow. In this country there was a wise king called Dasaratha with a son named Sahasrabahu. The king his ministers and merchants together (4). One day the king went into the ruled the country with mountains hunting. He came to the old brahmin, who was thinking about his cintamani and didn't even notice the king. The king ent his ministers and merchants to inquire and the brahmin pointed out his magic cow (5) to them saying, "The magic cow can provide at will what you desire to eat and drink. "The brahmin entertained the king and his men, then they robbed him of the magic cow on which the brahmin depended for his life. The brahmin suffered from hunger and went begging every day. His son Rama with the ax (6) was filled with hatred. He went into the mountains to draw a mandela, and by twelve years he had aquired the magic power ot Siddhisri. He went to the king's palace where he saw Rama's father, king Sahasrabahu riding out to fight on an elephant. Rama with the ax (there are now two Ramas, trans. ) had the power of invisibility. He smashed the elephant's trunk and killed the king. The king's son Rama and Rraismam hid in a cave and were not killed. After twelve years they reemerged from the cave and went into the mountains looking for the Rama with the ax and killed him. They ruled Jambudvipa Island again and killed 18,000 brahmins.

When the first queen of Dasagriva gava birth to a daughter, it was prophesized that the child would bring the end of the city. The devil king ordered the girl to be put in a box and thrown into the fiver. The box floated downriver but didn't sink. A fairy picked it out and brought up the girl.

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When it was time for her to marry, Rama and Rrisma (Rraisma) came and saw Sita's beauty and took her with them far away. She lived in a most beautiful garden. Together, those two and Sita did some of those things that ordinary folks like to do. They drew a circle around her so that not even birds could fly across to her (9). A vulture (10) kept guard for her and she was surrounded by men willing to serve her (11).

Da'sagriva flew down from heaven and saw the beautiful Sita but could not enter the mandala that had been drawn. Da'sagriva fought with the vulture (12) who became tired and died swallowing red tin. The devil changed into a beggar and begged of Sita. When she extended her hand to give him something he seized it and flew away with her.

Rrismam and Rama couldn't find Sita and fainted from worry. They looked through all of Jambudvipa for her and came to the country of the monkeys. An old monkey was lying on the ground with his eyes closed so that he resembled a mountain peak. The two were knocked down by the old monkey and ran away. In Autumn they saw a man planting sesame (13) in the field and later came back to where the old monkey lay. There they saw two monkeys fighting; they were the brothers Sugriva and Nanda, fighting for the throne. Nanda asked them to kill Sugriva but it was hard to distinguish the monkeys from each other. Nanda told them that there was a mirror at the tail of Sugriva and so Rama shot and killed him. Nanda became the monkey king (14). Rama told him how Sita had been kidnapped and asked for his help. Nanda ordered the monkeys, "You go out and search for seven days. After you have found her, come to tell me. If you don't find her or hear of her, I will take your eyes out to feed the raven. " The monkeys looked everywhere but didn't find her. The deadline got closer. In one more day the king would take their eyes out. A female monkey named Laphusa (15) stood up and saw a walnut tree with a nest of ravens. The old raven went out to search for food while the young ravens suffered from hunger. The mother said they would all get hot monkey eyes to eat the next day. The young ravens asked her where she would get hot monkey eyes. She told them, "Sita was kidnapped and taken to Lankapura city. The monkeys were sent out to find her. Tomorrow the king will take out the eyes of the monkeys. " Phusa (Laphusa) heard this and immediately went out and shouted, "I know where Sita is. " A male monkey went over and hugged her. The two monkeys marched together and came to a riverside. The female monkey dared not walk into the water. The male monkey held her up saying that she must tell him the truth. She told him, but he didn't take her across the river (16). When the male monkey came to another river he found that he had forgotten the information. He returned to the female and carried her to the middle of the river, where he said, "I've forgotten what you told me. "She told him again. When they reached another river he abandoned her and went himself to Rama and Rrisma to tell the news. They organized an army of monkeys, lions and wolves and went to the seaside but couldn't cross the sea.

Nanda said, "When I was young I was in the service of a brahmin, I served five hundred of them at a time. My teacher once prophesized, 'You will die in the water. ' Later he changed his curse saying, 'If stone, iron, tin or brass won't sink, you will not sink either. " (17) The Rama and his brother told Nanda to build a bridge for the army to cross the sea (18) , and after crossing the sea, they destroyed the bridge so that the army couldn't retreat. They came beating golden drums to Lanka and the animals roared. The mountains shook, the whole earth quaked and the brahmins defeated Dasagriva (19).

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His servants killed all of the rakshasas. Two high－ranking officers said that in ancient times in Jamabudvipa, kings devastated the land for the sake of women. There was a king who was the son of Nahusa. The king had five powers. He wished to obtain… (not clear in the original) favor, and could understand the languages of the animals. Once the king went into his garden and heard two ants talking and then he laughed. The queen asked why he laughed. He remembered a curse put on him and if he revealed the secret he would die, so he dared not tell the queen his secret. Later the king was served with some meat soup. The queen bee told the drones she wanted to drink some soup so the drones jumped into the soup and were burned to death. The king picked out their corpses and the queen bee and a group of bees crept over the bodies of the drones sucking up the meat soup.

Once the king went traveling. He came across an elephant's home. The elephant was eating rice, a horse was eating hay, a mule was eating hay and donkeys were eating grass. The female donkey goaded her husband into seizing the mule's food, for which he was kicked to death by the mule. The female donkey took the food out of the male donkey's mouth and ate it. The king was riding a house in the city. On the road there were a lot of goats. A female goat goaded a male goat into stealing some grass to eat from the back of a donkey. The male goat said, "If I do, I will be beaten to death with sticks. " The female goat said, "Let him beat you, anyhow, I want to eat the grass. " The male goat said, "I'm not the son of Nahusa, he, who for a woman's sake would give up his life. " The king heard this and remembered it. (20) The king of Sesa, for a woman's sake, turned into a snake. (21) Sakra, the god of heaven, for the sake of Ahalya, turned into a woman.

The ministers of the devil king told him of these miracles but he would not listen. All of the ministers escaped to Yenfoti. The devil king stepped into the treasure palace and lay with his face to the ground, making terrible mandalas and fasting for seven days. He wanted to get Indra's horse, on whose head there was deer tail. Having some of this hair, one can wipe out enemies. The tail stopped beating the horse's ears and the people of Jambudvipa entered Lankapura. The ten－headed devil king used his power to fast and stayed there, neither speaking nor moving. (22) Nanda climbed to the palace and spoke with his wife. He flew into a rage and lost his power of siddhi. Sakra, the god of heaven, descended to earth on a celestial chariot. The deer tail was confiscated and then he jumped into a cloud and seized a poisonous snake from the sea. Some men who knew the curse put butter on the body of the snake and it slithered away quickly. The ten－headed king hurled a missile which hit the forehead of Rama, knocking him down. Both the men and the monkeys were worried and they sent for Jivaka, the magic doctor. Jivaka said, "there is a magic herb called Amrtasanjiva on the Himalayas. At the foot of the mountain there is a terrific lake; go fetch water there for I shall use it to make an elixir of longevity. " (23) Nanda flew to the mountain, but he forgot the name of the magic herb so he brought the whole mountain back to Jivaka who made the medicine and saved Rama. (24) The ten－headed king took Sita flying in the air. A fortuneteller had told the people that there was only one place in his body which has mortal: his right toe. The people said to him, "if you are brave, stretch out your right toe. "Rama shot his toe with an arrow and the ten－headed king fell to the ground. People tied his neck with two chains. He tried to fly away but was knocked down. (25) The people wanted to kill him. He begged for his life and offered to pay tribute. When Sita returned, she thought Rama and Rraisma would have been dead for a hundred years.

Rama said, "When I see those who have been insulted come to me, my heart shakes like the leaves of a banana. " Rraisma said, "Under the ground there are gold and silver, and I am in charge of the treasure. " Sita said, "I met somebody who told jokes and didn't see the real situation, and only saw those who offered me compliments. He died one hundred years ago and now has come back to life. " (26)

They admired Sita's intelligence. She immediately disappeared into the ground. Rama took back the army and came to the seaside. The dragon king became very angry, so they threw eye－burning medicine and mustard into the sea. All of the dragons left the dragon palace and fled in four directions. They returned to Jambudvipa. Rama overcame his worries. His enemies couldn't beat him and he defeated Ambharisa and Mahadeva. (27) Finally Sakyamuni spoke, telling the conclusion of this tale. Rama was Maitreya. Rraisma was Sakyamuni. The ten－headed king and Rakshasa were Guibaifo, the kneeling Buddha. He said, "Rama used to shoot at me with arrows, now he has saved me. I can transcend death and life. " He lived a long life. You must be diligent and worship Bodhi, enjoy the best things, beneficence is the most useful thing. (28)

I will explain some questions according to the order in which they are raised above:

(1) In most versions, Rama's father is Dasaratha. Here we find the only exception. One version says his father is Karjuna (Arjuna) , another says his father is Sahasrabahu, and Dasaratha is his grandfather.

(2) In the Sanskrit Rāmāyana Rama has three brothers, here he has only one and Laksmana is written Rvaisma (Rrisma).

(3) The Rama story preaches Brahmanism, but here the story is a vehicle for Buddhism. Both religions used any means available to spread their word.

(4) King Sahasrabahu rules the country together with his ministers and merchants. The position of merchants is surprisingly important. In another article I shall discuss merchants and Buddhism in ancient India.

(5) The magic cow isn't clearly described here. In the Sanskrit Rāmāyana , section one, chapters 52－54, tells of the immortal Visvamitra who came to the woods where Vasostha meditated. Vasistha used magic to make his cow give him delicious food. Visvamitra wanted the magic cow from Vasostha, who refused. Visvamitra was defeated in the ensuing fight. Here the magic cow doesn't belong to Vasostha alone, but to a brahmin.

(6) The story of Rama with the ax is also seen in the Rāmāyana , sections one, chapters 73－75. In the Rāmāyana , the father of Rama with the ax is killed so he goes to look for Kshatriya, wanting to kill him. When Rama with the ax met Rama, he asked him to draw the magic bow and began to fight. In the end he was defeated by Rama. But here Rama with the ax first killed Rama's father Sahasrabahu and then went into the mountains looking for Rama.

(7) Sita was picked up from a ditch after being born to the tenheaded devil king in the Sanskrit Rāmāyana . She is the daughter－in－law of Dasaratha and is Rama's wife. In India, this version is the orthodox version, but not the only one. In the Pali Jataka , the story 461 (Dasaratha－Jataka) tells that Sita is the daughter of Dasaratha and the sister of Rama and Laksmana.

(8) The things done by ordinary people: the implication is not clear here, it may refer to sexual intercourse. According to the original, it original, it seems that Rama and his brother married one wife, namely Sita. The custom of brothers sharing one wife was common in the past among many nationalities.

(9) Drawing a circle is very common in Journey to the West . Sun Wukong drew a circle and let Tangseng stand in the middle. Devils and wild animals couldn't enter the circle. Only one point is different; the circle here is called a mandala.

(10) Vulture: refer to the Sanskrit Rāmāyana , section three, chapter 48. The vulture king Jatayus tried to advise Ravana not to kidnap Sita, but the devil wouldn't listen. They had a duel and the vulture king was wounded and nearly died. This plot is different in this version.

(11) Willing to serve her: in Bailey's translation "to her service". He says, "obscure passage". It seems to me the implication is Sita has sexual relations with many men.

(12) i. e. vulture, see (10).

(13) This passage doesn't exist in the Sanskrit Rāmāyana .

(14) The two brothers in monkey country are different in the Sanskrit Rāmāyana . In the Sanskrit version the elder brother is called Balin but here he is called Nanda. In the Sanskrit version, Rama killed Balin and allied with sugriva, but here it is sugriva, who is killed and the alliance is formed with Nanda. Nanda is confused with Nala in the later part, see (18). The plot here seems a little strange. The pair of monkey brothers were fighting with each other and were so much alike that Rama could not distinguish which one he was to shoot at. People told Rama to tie a mirror to the monkey to serve as a mark telling which monkey to shoot. This part isn't found in the Sanskrit Rāmāyana but is in the Tibetan version. This deserves our attention.

(15) The paragraph on Laphusa isn't in the Sanskrit Rāmāyana .

(16) The episode of the monkeys crossing the river isn't in the Sanskrit Rāmāyana . Here there is a strong color of folklore. The story of crossing the river resembles the story of the turtle in Tongtian River in Journey to the West .

(17) The meaning of this paragraph isn't clear.

(18) Rama ordered Nanda to build a bridge to cross the sea. In the Sanskrit Rāmāyana it is Nala who builds the bridge. See section six in the Sanskrit Rāmāyana .

(19) This is a little like the Chinese story of breaking the cauldron and sinking the boat.

(20) The official offered the devil Nahusa (Nahausa) advice, telling him many stories about kings in ancient times who lost their kingdoms and lives on account of a girl. This official meant to advise the devil to turn to good and release Sita and make friends with Rama. The first story is about the son of Nahusa. Nahusa appears many times in ancient Indian mythology, but represents different men. One tradition holds that he was an ancient king, the son of Ayus, the father of Yayati. He tried to usurp the throne of Indra but was knocked down and turned into a snake. Another tradition holds that he was the son of Ambarisa, the father of Nabhaga. He had five powers: understanding the language of worms, animals and birds. First he heard ants talk, later on he heard bees, donkeys, goats, and so on. The ability to understand ants talking is reflected in many stories in Han translations of sutras. See the Pali Jataka , p. 386. There are many stories about humans being able to understand animal languages, both in China and in foreign countries. In China Gong Yechang is well－known. In the Biography of Eminent Monks of the Liang dynasty, we find in the first volume, the story An Qing saying, "All are discussed, including the languages of birds and animals. "

(21) Sesa: the name of a giant snake with 1000 heads. In the saga of Visnu, he is called the king of dragons. In the Sanskrit Rāmāyana . 3. 13. 6, we find this name, but it is the name of one Prajapati, not the king's name.

(22) Ahalya is the wife of the immortal Gautama. Indra took advantage of an absence from home of the immortal and came to seduce Ahalya. After their pleasure, he fled, but came across the returning immortal who flew into a rage and cursed Indra with having no descendants.

(23) Nanda＝Nala＋Hanuman. In the Sanskrit Rāmāyana it is Nala who built the bridge to cross the sea. It is the magic monkey Hanuman who ventured into Lankapura and carried the mountain to bring the herb which cured Rama. Here Nanda seems to be the mixture of Sugriva, Nala and Hanuman. Hanuman of the Sanskrit Rāmāyana doesn't appear in the Rama story in the Khotan language. This is extremely noteworthy.

(24) In the Sanskrit Rāmāyana the magic herb is hidden. After Rama and his brother were wounded, Hanuman went to Jiluosuo Mountain in the north to search for a magic herb. The herbs were all hidden and the magic monkey became angry. He used his hands to carry the big mountain to the battlefield of the two ramies and then got the magic herb, cured the wounds of Rama and his brother, and carded the mountain back. Here Nanda forgot the name of the magic herbs so he couldn't find them.

(25) The mortal place is on the big toe. The Sanskrit Rāmāyana tells that the ten－headed devil got from Brahma invulnerability. Because he looked down on human beings and didn't even mention their names, only human beings could kill him. Visnu changed into four bodies, descended to earth, became human beings and finally killed the devil. Here we are told that only the big toe of the devil is vulnerable to arrows.

(26) The meaning of this paragraph isn't clear.

(27) The Rama story was written as a tragedy.

(28) Like other Jataka stories, this Rama story also points out who is who at the end of the story. We should note that Rama is Maitreya. This is significant for us in studying the spread of the belief in Maitreya in Xinjiang. The Sasparamita sannipata sutra also says Rama is Maitreya at the end, as does the version in the Khotan language.

(2) The ancient language of Yanpeng

Of the ancient languages excavated in Xinjiang, the second langage which has a Rama story is the ancient language of Yanpeng (焉耆). The story is very simple and ends with mention of Vibhisana, the younger brother of Ravana. Now I will recount this story, according to the relics of the Yuanqi language reported by Siegling Sieg, volume 10－11.

This story is part of the Punyavantajataka and contains a conversation between a carpenter and a painter. The painter says to the carpenter: Lacking wisdom, a man's energy will bring him catastrophe, just as case was with the ten－headed king. When he saw that the army of Rama had surrounded Lankapura, he summoned his brother and officers asking, "What's to be done? The son of Dasaratha, Rama, for the sake of Sita, has crossed the sea and surrounded Lankapura. How shall we deal with him? " Vibhisana, the brother of the ten－headed king, spoke to him, allowing others to hear: "Bring catastrophe (? ). ..

But Rama will leave happily after he has got what he wants

Bring catastrophe.. .

You don't have such wisdom, so you are bound to suffer. " On hearing this, the ten－headed king became angry because he was lacking in wisdom. He tore off a crystal leg from his throne and threw it in the face of Vibhisana, saying, "Do me a favor and take this to Rama who you praise. As long as I live I will not return Sita to Rama. You are afraid of him. I am not. "

The brother shook his head and wiped off the blood on his face. He stood up and kowtowed, begging his mother's pardon, and walked from Lankapura under the eye of his brother, and disappeared in the direction of Rama's place. After Rama won the battle he crowned Vibhisana and made him the king of Lankapura, bestowing the title "King of Lankapura"on him. The result was the complete devastation of the ten－headed king and his officials.

When the officials gathered, Ravana divided them because of his foolishness. When he still had power he divided the power of the Raksasa by beating Vibhasana. He refused to accept his brother's correct advice. As a result he lost his honor and wealth. Vibhasana left him; the right to rule left him. He was finished together with Lankapura. It might be said that without wisdom, all power, energy and willpower give way to languor.